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135 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
cardiopulmonary cycle
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right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, lung, pulmonary vein, left atrium, bicuspid (mitral) valve, left ventricle, aortic ventricle, aorta, arteries, capillaries, veins, superior and inferior vena cava, right atrium
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layers of cardiac tissue
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1. endocardium
2. myocardium 3. pericardium a. serous pericardium (visceral) b. serous pericardium (parietal) c. fibrous pericardium |
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characteristics of cardiac conduction (4)
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1. automaticity
2. excitability 3. conductivity 4. contractility |
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Cardiac Conduction Pathway (5)
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1. SA Node (60-100 bpm)
2. AV Node (40-60 bpm) 3. Bundle of His 4. R/L Bundle Branch 5. Purkinje Fibers (25-40 bpm) |
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Sympathethic and Parasympathetic Innervation of Heart
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Para: SA Node/Atrium
Symp: AV node, ventricle, some atrium |
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Fick Equation
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VO2=cardiac output x (a-v)O2 diff
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Rate Pressure Product (RPP)
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relative myocardial work
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Myocardium oxygen consumption (mVO2)
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mVO2=HR * SBP
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Resting MAP
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MAP=DBP + 1/3(SBP-DBP)
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Pulse Pressure
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SBP-DBP
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Ohm's Law
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Flow = change in pressure/resistance
Change in pressure = flow * resistance |
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Resistance
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Resistance = (Length * Viscosity)/radius^4
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MAP2
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MAP=cardiac output * total peripheral resistance
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Starling's Law of the Heart
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increased EDV = increased SV
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Boyle's Law
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Pressure * Volume = Constant
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lung division
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trachea, R & L main bronchi, lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
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carina & acinus
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carina - bifurcation into lt and rt main bronchi
acinus - functional respiratory unit |
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Diffusion Rate
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VGas = A*D*DeltaP/T
A=surface area D=diffusion constant T=thickness DeltaP=pressure gradient |
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Diffusion Constants of O2 and CO2
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CO2=0.01
O2=0.00053 |
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Regulation of Respiration
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Central Command: pns and medulla oblangata
SNS: inc depth and rate of ventilation, bronchodilation, dec pulmonary secretion Cortex level: volitional control |
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chemoreceptors
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central: 4th ventricle, CO2 and H+ in CSF
peripheral: aortic arch and carotid bodies, PaO2, PaCO2, and H+ |
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Hering-Breuer Inflation Receptor
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stretch receptors within lungs
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Minute Ventilation
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VE=fb*Vt
fb=breathing rate Vt=tidal volume |
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Dead Space Ventilation
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VD=fb*Vd
Vd=amount of air that doesn't make it to alveoli |
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Alveolar Ventilation
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VA=VE-VD
VE=VD+VA |
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Cause of shift of O2 dissociation curve (4)
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1. inc temp
2. inc DPG 3. inc PCO2 4. dec pH |
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Specific responses to acute exercises (9)
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1. inc HR
2. inc SV 3. inc Q 4. inc (a-v)O2 5. inc O2 consumption 6. inc SBP and MAP 7. dec TPR 8. inc coronary blood flow 9. inc SNS activity |
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1. Increased HR
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rest to mild: withdraw of vagal input
moderate-high: inc SNS and dec vagal |
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2. inc SV
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EF=SV/EDV
inc preload inc contractility of L ventricle |
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3. Inc Q
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rest to mild: from inc HR and inc SV
mos-high: mainly from inc HR |
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4. Inc (a-v)O2
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(a-v)O2 increases with exercise as muscles use up more O2
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6. Inc SBP
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SBP inc linearly with ex b/c of inc SV and Q
DBP does not inc or decreases due to decreased vascular resistance |
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7. TPR
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initially, inc arteriole dilation in muscle, dec elsewhere
then vasodilation for sweating occurs |
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8. Coronary Blood Flow
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at rest cardiac muscle uses 75% of O2 supply
ex, coronary artery dilation by endothelial-derived-relaxing factor |
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Isometric Exercises
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inc in SBP, DBP, MAP, and RPP
1. mechanical compression of muscle 2. stimulate afferent nerves 3. possible Valsalva maneuver |
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Arm vs Leg
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Arm Leg
Ven Ret 2x 2x HR 2x 4x SBP 1x 3x DBP same or dec Q 1x 1x |
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Ventilatory Equivalent
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ratio of minute ventilation to oxygen consumption (VE/VO2)
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Ventilatory Threshold
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point at which pulmonary ventilation inc disproportianately with O2 consumption during graded exercise (due to anaerobic use of buffing lactate)
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Endergonic Reactions
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require energy to be added
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Exergonic Reactions
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- release energy
- (break down of glucose and fat) |
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Couppled Reactions
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liberation of energy in an exergonic reaction drives an endergonic reaction
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Oxidation
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removing an electron [H+]
coupled with reduction |
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Reduction
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addition of an electron [H+]
coupled with oxidation |
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Formation of ATP
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1. anaerobic pathway
2. aerobic pathway |
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Formation of ATP:
1. anaerobic pathways |
- do not involve O2
- Two pathways -- phosphocreatine (PC) breakdown -- glycolysis |
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Formation of ATP:
2. aerobic pathways |
- require O2
- oxidative phosphorylation (oxidative formation of ATP) |
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Type and Duration:
ATP-PCR |
- anaerobic
- 10 seconds |
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Type and Duration:
Glycolysis |
- anaerobic
- 2 minutes |
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Type and Duration:
aerobic |
- proteins and fat
- aerobic - long duration |
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oxidize
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lose H+ or gain O2
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Aerobic Pathway of ATP Production
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1. Krebs Cycle
2. Electron Transport Chain |
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Aerobic Pathway of ATP Prod:
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) |
- completes oxidation of substrates
- produces NADH and FADH to enter ETC |
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Aerobic Pathway of ATP Prod:
Electron Transport Chain |
- oxidative phosphorylation
- remove electrons from NADH and FADH to enter ETC - H+ from NADH and FADH join with O2 to form water |
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ATP
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energy currency
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Anaerobic Pathway for ATP Production
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ATP-PC System
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Anaerobic Pathway for ATP Prod: ATP-PC System
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- immediate source of ATP
- PC + ADP --> ATP + C - uses creatine kinase |
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ATP + H20 -->
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--> ADP + Pi + 7.3 kcal/mole
- uses ATPase |
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1 ATP =
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= 7.3 kcal/mole
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glycolysis
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- anaerobic
- from glucose (2 ATP) or glycogen (3 ATP) |
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end product of glycolysis
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2 aTP and 2 pyruvate
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pyruvate used in
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- aerobic metabolism
- accepts H+ from NADH to form lactic acid |
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Energy released from glycolysis
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- occurs in cytosol
- glucose is oxidized - NAD is reduced to NADH - limited quantities of ATP produced - cleaved into 2 pyruvate molecules |
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Energy released from fat
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- 460 ATP
- most plentiful source of energy - first step: lipolysis using lipase |
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Two sources of fat
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1. triacylglycerol in fat cells (adipocytes)
2. intramuscular triacylglycerol |
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Lipolysis stimulated by:
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1. epinephrine
2. norepinephrine 3. glucagon 4. growth hormone |
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Intracellular mediator of lipolysis:
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cyclic AMP (cAMP)
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Three stages of Oxidative Phosphorylation
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1. micronutrient digestion, absorption, and assimilation
2. degradation of subunits into acetyl-CoA 3. oxidation of acetyl-CoA to CO2 and H2O |
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Energy Release from Lipid
Source: 1 molecule glycerol |
Pathway: glycolysis + Kreb's cycle
ATP per molecule of fat: 19 |
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Energy Release from Lipid:
Source: 3 molecules of 18-carbon |
Pathway: Beta-oxidation and Kreb's Cycle
ATP Yield per molecule neutral fat: 441 |
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Fats burn in a carbohydrate flame
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glycolytic production of pyruvate keeps required levels of oaxeloacetate to maintain activity of beta oxidation
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Slower rate of energy release from fat
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- fat oxidation slower than carbohydrate
- carb ox maintains fat ox - carb depletion impairs exercise performance |
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Krebs called citric acid because
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of citrate
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Carbs -->
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glucose, protein, fat
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Fats -->
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glycerol --> glucose, fat, protein
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Protein -->
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glucose, protein, ketogenic amino acids
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What regulates energy metabolism?
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- overall energy state dictates direction of metabolic pathways
- |
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Rate-limiting modulators of energy metabolism
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- ATP
- ADP - cAMP - NAD - Calcium - pH |
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Short-term, high-intensity activities
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- greater contribution of anaerobic systems
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Long-term, low to moderate-intensity exercise
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- majority of ATP produced from aerobic sources
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Steady state VO2
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O2 consumed meets demand of energy requirement at cellular level
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O2 deficit
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difference of O2 consumed to O2 required at cellular level
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Trained vs untrained difference in steady state
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trained reach steady state faster
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O2 deficit and debt during light-moderate and heavy exercise
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- inc CO2 and HR
- at rest 1 met=3.5 ml/kg VO2 |
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O2 debt
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O2 still required post-exercise as body cools down
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another term for O2 debt
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excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
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"Fast" portion of O2 debt
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1. resynthesis of stroed PC
2. replacing muscle and blood O2 stores |
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"Slow" portion of O2 debt
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1. elevated HR and breathing, inc energy need
2. elevated body temp, inc metabolic rate 3. elevated epi and nor-epi, inc metabolic rate 4. conversion of lactic acid to glucose (gluconeogenesis) in the liver (Cori Cycle) |
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Cori Cycle
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conversion of lactic acid to glucose (gluconeogenesis) in the liver
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High-intensity, short-term exercise (2-20 sec)
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- immediate response
- ATP production through ATP-PC system |
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Intense exercise longer than 20 sec
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- short-term
- ATP production via anaerobic glycolysis |
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high-intensity exercise longer than 45 seconds
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- long term
- ATP production through ATP-PC, glycolysis, and aerobic systems |
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VO2
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"ability to deliver and use oxygen"
- VO2=Q*(a-v)O2 difference |
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oxygen uptake increases linearly until
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VO2 max is reached
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physiological factors influencing VO2 max
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1. ability of cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen to muscles
2. ability of muscles to use oxygen and produce ATP aerobically |
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what determines VO2 max
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stroke volume
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effect of hot/humid environment on VO2
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inc body temp requires vasodilation leading to more O2 consumption
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effect of high-intensity exercise on VO2
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body accumulates more lactate, electrolyte imbalance and inc temperature
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definition of OBLA
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the level at which blood lactic acid systemically rises to 4.0 mM during incremental exercise
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implication of OBLA
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maximal exercise intensity that a person can sustain for a prolonged period of time
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mechanisms for lactate threshold
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- low muscle O2
- accelerated glycolysis or slower mitochondrial respiration - recruitment of fast-twitch fibers - reduced rate of lactate removal from the blood |
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Above lactate threshold ->
Below lactate threshold -> |
-> anaerobic
-> aerobic |
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removal of lactic acid following exercise (active vs passive)
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active removes lactic acid faster than passive
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Sources of fuel during exercise:
carbohydrate |
- blood glucose
- muscle glycogen |
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Sources of fuel during exercise:
fat |
- plasma FFA (from adipose tissue lypolysis)
- intramuscular triglycerides |
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Sources of fuel during exercise:
protein |
- only a small contribution to total energy (~2%)
- may increase to 5-15% in prolonged exercise |
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Sources of fuel during exercise: blood lactate
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gluconeogenesis from the Cori cycle
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Respiratory exchange ratio
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VCO2/VO2
- indicates fuel utilization = respiratory quotient |
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McArdle's Syndrome
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- disease with deficiency of glycogen phosphorylase
- no lactate production with ischemic exercise |
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1. Mass
2. Distance 3. Time 4. Force 5. Work |
1. kilogram (kg)
2. meter (m) 3. second (s) 4. Newton (N) 5. Joule (J) |
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6. Energy
7. Power 8. Velocity 9. Torque |
6. Joule (1 kcal=4.186 joules)
7. watt (W) 8. meters per second (m/s) 9. newton-meter (N-m) |
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one calorie=
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the quantity of heat required to raise 1 L of water 1 degree celsius
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Heat of Combustion
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- heat liberated by oxidizing (burning) food in a bomb in a bomb calorimeter
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Heat of Combustion Values
1. Lipid 2. Carb 3. Protein |
1. 9.4 kCal/gram
2. 4.2 kCal/gram 3. 5.65 kCal/gram |
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Coefficient of Digestibility
1. Lipids 2. Carbohydrates 3. Protein |
1. 95%
2. 97% 3. 92% |
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Atwater General Factors
1. Lipids 2. Carbs 3. Protein |
1. 9 kCal/gram
2. 4 kCal/gram 3. 4 kCal/gram |
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total kCal =
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= Atwater factor and food (grams)
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Measurement of Energy Expenditure
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1. Direct Calorimetry
2. Indirect Calorimetry |
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Direct Calorimetry
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measurement of heat production as an indication of metabolic rate
(heat) |
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Indirect Calorimetry
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measurement of oxygen consumption as an estimate of metabolic rate
(oxygen used) |
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Indirect Calorimetry (methods)
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1. Closed Circuit
2. Open Circuit a. Portable spirometry b. bag technique c. stationary computerized metabolic system 3. doubly layered water technique |
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Closed Circuit
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- good for stationary
- large resistance |
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portable spirometry
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- small and carried in pack
- air volume is metered - sample collected to measure concentrations of gases - breathe normal air |
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Bag Technique
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- air collected in Douglas Bag
- gold standard, more accurate - small sample measured |
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Stationary Computerized metabolic system
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- air flow measured for volume
- gas analyzers measure O2 and CO2 - stationary |
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Doubly Layered Water Technique
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- truly, truly gold standard
- isotope-based - Oxygen-18 and Deuterium - isotopes eave body through sweat - estimates total daily energy expenditure |
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Respiratory Quotient =
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CO2 produced/ O2 consumed
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RQ values
1. Carbohydrate 2. Fat 3. Protein 4. Nonprotein RQ 5. RQ for a mixed diet |
1. 1.00
2. 0.696 3. 0.818 4. 0.86 5. 0.82 |
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Basal Metabolic Rate
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energy to maintain vital functions in awake state
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Resting Metabolic Rate
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energy to maintain vital functions plus digestion (measured 3-4 hours after meal)
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main factors of increased metabolic rate
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- increased surface area
- decreases with age |
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Effects of Regular Exercise
1. resistance training 2. Endurance training 3. Exercise |
1. increases BMR by increasing FFM
2. increases BMR without increasing FFM 3. offset the age-related decline in BMR |
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Resting Daily Energy Expenditure =
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= BMR x m^2
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Factors that affect energy expenditure
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- physical activity
- diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) - climate - pregnancy |
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Physical Activity Ration
1. Light work 2. Moderate 3. Heavy work 4. Maximal Work |
1. 1-3 x BMR
2. 3-6 x BMR 3. 6-8 x BMR 4. >9 x BMR |
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1 MET =
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3.5 mL/kg/min
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