Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
How thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others
|
Social Psychology
|
|
How we perceive our social world
How we attend to, store, remember, and use information about other people and the social world |
Social Cognition
|
|
mental frameworks that organize or synthesize information about a person, place, or thing
Based on experiences or conceptions |
Schema
|
|
Inferring or explaining the cause of behavior
|
Attribution
|
|
personality, mood, ability, effort
|
Internal Attribution
|
|
situational factors, others behavior, luck
|
External Attribution
|
|
When evaluating others’ behavior, we tend to either overestimate internal characteristics or underestimate external characteristics
|
Fundamental Attribution Error
|
|
we tend to attribute our own behavior external factors
we tend to attribute others’ behavior to internal factors |
Actor-observer effect
|
|
Personal successes are attributed to internal factors
Personal failures are attributed to external factors |
Self-Serving Bias
|
|
Welfare
Battered women |
Blaming the victim
|
|
“People get what they deserve”
|
Just World Hypothesis
|
|
An overall evaluation about some aspect of the world
Goals and expectations Personal experiences |
attitudes
|
|
Loss of sense of self when people in a group become anonymous
“Mob mentality” |
Deindividuation
|
|
enhancement of task performance because there are other people present
|
Social Facilitation
|
|
decreased effort put forth by individuals when working in a group
|
Social Loafing
|
|
a preconceived opinion or bias, especially a negative attitude or evaluation toward a group of people
defined by their racial, ethnic, or religious heritage or by their gender or occupation may lead us to stereotype people or to discriminate against them |
Prejudice
|
|
A belief that causes a person to act in a manner consistent with that belief
Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968 Teachers were told that some students would have a positive performance over the year based on test results “Marked” students did better than their “unmarked” classmates |
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
|
|
suggest that cognitive structures that are biased in favor of the in-group, and against out-groups, were selected for in the course of human evolution
|
Krebs and Denton Theory
|
|
tendency to make favorable attributions to members of our in-group
|
In-group bias
|
|
tendency to see members of the out-group as more similar to each other
|
Out-group homogeneity effect
|
|
Competition for scarce resources
|
Realistic conflict theory
|
|
Series of competitive interactions resulted in:
Within-group solidarity Negative stereotyping of out-group Hostile between-group interactions |
Robber’s Cave Study
|
|
Overcoming the “we/they” effect:
Compliment each group in presence of others Engage in common activities Establish common goals - cooperate to solve a common problem |
Robber’s Cave Study
|
|
The presence of a constellation of symptoms that create significant distress or impair work, school, family, relationships, or daily living
|
Mental Disorder
|
|
characterized by tension, hyperactivity of the autonomic nervous system, expectation of an impending disaster, and continuous vigilance for danger
|
Anxiety Disorders
|
|
An unrealistic, excessive fear of a specific class of stimuli that interferes with normal activities
|
phobia
|
|
Relaxation Training
Gradual Steps Remaining relaxed during the steps Example: Acrophobia Stand on chair Stand on ladder Stand on balcony of 2nd floor Observation deck of the Sears Tower |
Systematic Desensitization
|
|
Prozac
Zoloft |
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
|
|
depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day
markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain insomnia or hypersomnia nearly psychomotor agitation or retardation fatigue or loss of energy feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide. |
Major Depression
|
|
Benzodiazepines:
Xanax, Valium Often for short periods |
Anxiety Disorders
|
|
inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
decreased need for sleep more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing distractibility increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or psychomotor agitation excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (e.g., engaging in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business investments) |
mania
|
|
Disordered thoughts
Delusions Hallucinations Bizarre behaviors |
Schizophrenia
|
|
recurrent substance use resulting in a failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home (e.g., repeated absences or poor work performance related to substance use; substance-related absences, suspensions or expulsions from school; neglect of children or household)
|
Drug Abuse
|
|
a. a need for markedly increased amounts of the substance to achieve intoxication or designed
b. effect markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of the substance |
Drug Addiction
|
|
What is the essential characteristics that need to be present in order for something to be considered a psychiatric disorder?
|
1. Distress
2. Disability 3. Danger |
|
Sigmund Freud
Intrapsychic conflict id, ego, and superego |
Psychodynamic Perspective
|
|
caused by specific abnormalities of the brain and nervous system
|
Medical Perspective
|
|
Learned maladaptive behavior patterns
environmental factors |
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
|
|
The cultures in which people live play a significant role in the development of mental disorders
|
Sociocultural Perspective
|
|
A person possesses a predisposition for a disorder
Also faces stressors that exceed his or her ability to cope with them |
Diathesis Stress Model
|
|
Thought disorder
Disorganized, irrational thinking Delusion A belief that is clearly in contradiction to reality Hallucination Perception of a nonexistent object or event |
Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
|
|
Absence of behaviors that are normally present
Social withdrawal Lack of affect Reduced motivation |
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
|
|
Data based scientific study of behavior
Conclusions about behavior are derived from scientific evidence Practical applications of psychology have been derived from and tested by scientific methods |
psychology
|
|
What events happen in the brain when people play games?
|
Physiological Psychology
|
|
What events happen that increase/decrease the likelihood that people will play games?
|
Behavior Analysis
|
|
What types of strategies do people use when playing games?
|
Cognitive Psychology
|
|
How does play change across the lifespan?
|
Developmental Psychology
|
|
What kinds of cues affect the types of games that people will play with each other?
|
Social Psychology
|
|
an idea that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is a prediction that can be tested
|
hypothesis
|
|
Studies the relationship between two variables
Useful in directing future research |
correlational research
|
|
a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more variables believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other variables are held constant
|
experiment
|
|
the manipulated experimental factor in an experiment
|
independent variable
|
|
A factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable
|
dependent variable
|
|
Groups in which the independent variable is manipulated
|
Experimental groups
|
|
Comparison group that is exposed to the naturally occurring or zero value of the independent variable
|
Control group
|
|
Definitions of the variables in terms of operations a researcher performs in order to measure them
|
Operational definitions
|
|
the tendency to give the same response to similar stimuli
|
generalization
|
|
what are the results?
|
descriptive statistics
|
|
Distinguishing Chance from Significance
|
Inferential Statistics
|
|
statistical indication that results are not likely to have occurred by chance
|
Statistical significance
|
|
Comparison:
Different conditions rule out certain explanations and confirm others Control: Attempt to weed out maximum number of alternative explanations Manipulation: Restructure the world in ways that will differentiate alternative hypotheses |
Experimental Research
|
|
Cells that compose the CNS
Soma, axon, dendrites |
neuron
|
|
chemicals that carry information across the synaptic gap from one neuron to the next
|
neurotransmitters
|
|
the brain and spinal cord
|
central nervous system
|
|
involved in planning strategies for action, evaluating them, and changing them if necessary
|
frontal lobe
|
|
area of the cerebral cortex at the top of the head that is involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control
|
parietal lobe
|
|
the portion of the cerebral cortex just above the ears that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory
|
temporal lobe
|
|
the part of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that is involved in vision
|
occipital lobe
|
|
loosely connected network of structures - including the amygdala and hippocampus - that play important roles in memory and emotion
|
limbic system
|
|
Contains the medulla, the pons, and the midbrain.
|
Brain stem
|
|
The awareness of properties of an object that occurs when a receptor is stimulated
|
Sensation
|
|
Organizing and interpreting sensory input as signaling a particular object or event
|
Perception
|
|
Relationship between physical events and psychological experience
Threshold Absolute Threshold Just-noticeable difference Difference Threshold |
Psychophysics
|
|
A set of characteristics that corresponds to an object
|
Figure
|
|
The background that needs to be distinguished in order to pick out figures
|
Ground
|
|
Perception is recognizing objects according to the organization of their elements
The whole is different from the sum of its parts |
Gestalt Psychology
|
|
Processing that begins with sensory receptors registering environmental information and sending it to the brain for analysis and interpretation
|
bottom-up processing
|
|
Processing of perceptual information that starts out with cognitive processing at the higher levels of the brain
|
top-down processing
|
|
when individuals see a disconnected or incomplete figure, they fill in the spaces and see it as a complete figure
|
principle of closure
|
|
when individuals see objects close to each other, they tend to group them together
|
principle of proximity
|
|
when objects are similar, individuals tend to group them together
|
principle of similarity
|
|
Long-term change in behavior that results from experience
|
learning
|
|
Automatically-elicited (reflexive) behaviors
|
classical conditioning
|
|
Does not normally elicit a response or reflex action by itself
|
neutral stimulus
|
|
Always elicits a reflex action
|
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
|
|
A naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
|
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
|
|
The stimulus that was originally “neutral” becomes conditioned after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Will eventually elicit the unconditioned response by itself |
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
|
|
The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus
|
Conditioned Response (CR)
|
|
The process by which behavior becomes associated with consequences
|
Operant Conditioning
|
|
The occurrence of a stimulus following a response that INCREASES the likelihood of the response being repeated
|
Reinforcment
|
|
Following a behavior with a rewarding stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior
|
positive reinforcement
|
|
following a behavior with the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior
|
negative reinforcement
|
|
Presentation of a stimulus following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
|
punishment
|
|
a behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus
|
positive punishment
|
|
a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it
|
negative punishment
|
|
Function – registers environmental information in “snapshots”
Types: iconic - visual echoic – auditory Duration - brief 1/2 sec for visual info 2 sec for auditory info |
sensory memory
|
|
Function - conscious processing of information (not a place, a process!)
Limited capacity and duration |
Short-Term Memory
|
|
a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time
|
long-term memory
|
|
the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated
|
explicit memory
|
|
Nondeclarative memory
Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness |
implicit Memory
|
|
Not tied to personal events
General facts & definitions Examples: How many tires on a car? What color is a banana? |
Semantic Memory
|
|
Memory tied to personal experiences
Examples: What month is your birthday? Do you like to eat caramel apples? |
Episodic Memory
|
|
Can’t recall old memories
|
retrograde amnesia
|
|
Can’t form new memories
|
anterograde amnesia
|
|
Categories defined by a list of essential characteristics
Dictionary definition |
formal concept
|
|
Categories based on perceptions and interactions in the real world
Exemplars |
natural concept
|
|
A procedure consisting of a series of steps that will solve a specific type of problem
|
Algorithm
|
|
A general rule (a rule of thumb) that guides decision making or problem solving
Means-ends analysis |
Heuristic
|
|
when you infer specific instances from a general principle or rule
John is taller than Phil. Sue is shorter than Phil. Therefore, John is taller than Sue. |
Deductive Reasoning
|
|
Uses specific examples to figure out a general rule
Specific proposition: This ice is cold. General Propositions: All ice is cold. There is no ice on the sun. |
Inductive Reasoning
|
|
Narrow window of time when certain types of learning are possible
|
critical period
|
|
Window of time when a particular type of language is easiest but not the only time it can occur
|
Sensitive Period
|
|
Age:
0–2 years Object permanence Imitation Symbolic play begins |
Sensorimotor Period
|
|
Age:
2–7 years Development of symbolic play Egocentrism Can mentally represent info but not mentally operate on info |
Preoperational Period
|
|
Age:
7–11 years Major achievements: Classifying objects Logic tied to physical world Basic reversibility Conservation |
Concrete Operations Period
|
|
Age:
11 years (at the earliest) Major achievements: Abstract concepts Logic Reversibility Hypothetical thinking |
Formal Operations Period
|
|
The culture in which we are raised significantly affects our cognitive development.
|
Vygotsky’s Theory
|
|
Culture and environment also influence development
|
Piaget's Theory
|
|
The requirements and desires that lead animals (including humans) to behave in a particular way at a particular time and place
|
Motivation
|
|
A relatively brief display of a feeling made in response to environmental events having motivational significance or to memories of such events
|
emotion
|
|
You feel emotions after your body reacts.
|
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
|
|
The event causes both arousal and emotion.
|
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
|
|
Your arousal and the context
combine to form emotions. |
Cognitive Theory of Emotion
|
|
Pattern of behavior and thinking that prevails across time and situations and differentiates one person from another
|
personality
|
|
an enduring personal characteristic that underlies a person’s reactions to a variety of situations
|
trait
|
|
All people have the same traits just to different degrees
Some theorists believe that traits are the cause of behaviors whereas others believe they are just labels for how we behave |
trait theory
|
|
personality was a result of events in a person’s life, including traumatic ones
mind actively prevents unconscious traumatic events from reaching consciousness |
psychoanalytic approach
|
|
irrational, illogical, impulsive dimension of personality
|
id
|
|
rational, planful, mediating dimension of personality
|
ego
|
|
moralistic, judgemental, perfectionist dimension of personality
|
superego
|
|
personality development involves passing through several psychosexual stages of development early in life
|
Freud's theory of personality
|
|
Mouth
Fixation = oral activities in adulthood |
Oral Stage (birth – 1 year)
|
|
Anus
Fixation - anal retentive; anal expulsive behaviors |
Anal Stage (1 – 3 years)
|
|
Genitals
Oedipus or Electra complex Fixation: Males = excessive masculinity Females = need for attention/domination |
Phallic Stage (3 – 5 years)
|