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115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Hormone:
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Means "awake, stimulate"
1. Chemical messenger produced by endocrine gland and transported via blood to target organ 2. Proteins (polypeptide)- insulin 3. Biogenic amines- adrenaline 4. Steroids - estrogens |
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Endocrine system consists of:
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1. Endocrine glands
2.Disseminated endocrine cells 3. Neuroendocrine cells |
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Endocrine cells:
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1. Hypophysis
2. Thyroid gland 3. Parathyroid bodies 4. Suprarenal glands 5. Pancreas 6. Epiphysis |
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History of hypophysis:
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Cushing explained hypophyseal function (Dirigent of the endocrine system)
|
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Hypophysis development:
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1. Ratke`s pouch:
- 3rd week- in the ceiling of oral cavity - exagination towards diencephalon - separation of exagination, proliferation of anterior wall 2. Exagination of base of diencephalon: - produces posterior lobe differentiation into pitucytes |
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Adenohypophysis- 3 parts:
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Pars distalis:
- biggest (75%) Pars tuberalis: - cranially Pars intermedia: - between adeno and neurohypophysis |
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Pars distalis of adenohypophysis:
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Strands of cells, in between capillaries.
On HE- 3 types of cells: - acidophilic - basophilic (PAS- positive) - chromophobic (without granules, non- differentiated elements) |
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Basophilic cells from pars distalis:
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β1 cells:
- gross granules by cellular membrane - ACTH, β-MSH, Met- enkefalin, endorfin β2- cells: - big cells, small granules - TSH δ- cells: - big cells, middle sized granules - FSH, LH |
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Pars tuberalis of adenohypophysis:
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Surrounds infundibulum
Numerous capillaries Most of the are δ- cells |
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Acidophilic cells of pars distalis:
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α- cells:
-rough granules, GER - around nucleus zone, without granules- GA - growth hormone (somatotropin, GH) ε- cells: - usually small, not numerous (x graviditas, lactation) - small granules (graviditas- enlargement) - prolactin (PRL) |
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Pars intermedia:
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Rudimentary
Basophilic Follicles can be created |
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Neurohypophysis:
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1. Eminentia medialis:
- bottom of 3rd brain ventricle - numerous non myelinated nerve fibers 2. Infundibulum: - non myelinated nerve fibers - some terminates by capillaries 3. Par nervosa |
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Development of thyroid gland:
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Starts at day 24
Exagination of endoderm of primitive pharynx Relative and absolute descensus- ductus thyreoglossus) Foramen caecum Lobe creation |
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Histogenesis of thyroid gland:
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1. Solid endoderm formation
2. Ingrowth of surrounding mesenchyme and blood vessels 3. Ingrowth of ultimobrachial bodies 4. Separation of cells into groups in the 10th week 5. Single layer of epithelium around lumen 6. 11th week- production of coloid |
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Composition of thyroid gland:
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1. Capsule with septa
2. Follicules (50- 900 micrometers): - ball shaped - single layer epithelium of follicular cells - contains coloid- thyreoglobulin 3. Follicular cells 4. Parafollicular cells |
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Follicular cells of thyroid gland:
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Ball shaped nucleus
Numerous GER (basally), mitochondria Numerous lysosomes Thyreoglobulin, cleavage of T4 and T3 |
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Synthesis of thyroid hormones:
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1. Iodine pump using ATP transfers iodine from blood into coloid
2. Synthesis of thyroglobulin and peroxidasis, deposit in one secretory pouch and its release into coloid by exocytosis 3. Iodization of thyroglobulin using peroxidase in coloid and origin of iodine thyroglobulin 4. Endocytosis of iodine thyroglobulin and fusion of primary lysosome with this pouch 5. Proteolysis of iodine thyroglobulin into T3, T4 and other fragments 6. Release of T3 and T4 into circulation, and binding on transport plasmatic protein |
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Parafollicular cells:
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C- cells
Located in between follicules (individually by groups) Bigger, lighter Numerous GER, GA, MIT Ball shaped, dark granules Creation and accumulation of calcitonin |
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Parathyroid gland characteristics:
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2 pairs of small ball shaped like structures on posterior side of lobes of thyroid gland.
Separate branches of inferior thyroid artery. Play a role in metabolism (parathyroid hormone/ PTH) |
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Development of parathyroid gland:
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1. From dorsal part of 3rd and 4th branchial exagtion
2. 5th week: proliferation of endoderm and loss of lumen 3. Ingrowth of vessels from mesenchyme 4. Main cells: fetal metabolism of Ca2+ 5. "Oxyphilic cells"- originate in approximately 7th year of life |
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Parathyroid gland composition:
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1. Capsule and septa
2. Parenchyme separated into trabecules 3. Main cells (relatively big cells, 4-8 microns): - light cytoplasm - granules containing PTH 4. Oxyphilic cells- rare and bigger: - dark cytoplasm - without granules - rich in mitochondria - function not clear |
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Characteristics if suprarenal gland:
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1. Suprarenal cortex:
- mineralcorticoids- aldosteron - glucocorticoids- cortisol, corticosteron - androgens- testosteron 2. Suprarenal medulla: - catecholamines- adrenaline, noradrenaline |
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Development of suprarenal gland:
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1. Cortex:
- from coelomic epithelium on sides of mesenterium - proliferation in direction towards aorta - secondary proliferation of cortex--> origin of permanent cortex 2. Medulla: - from essence of ganglion coeliacum - sympaticoblasts, migrate into origin of cortex |
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Composition of cortex of suprarenal gland:
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1. Capsule- septa:
- fibroblasts - collagen and elastic fibers - smooth mm. cells 2. Suprarenal gland cortex: - zona glomerulosa (15%) - zona fascicularis (65%) - zona reticulosa (7%) |
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Zona glomerulosa of suprarenal gland:
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External layer
Bent columns of cylindrical cells (producing steroids) In between capillary sinusoids Production of aldosterone |
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Suprarenal gland mnemonic:
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Go Find Rex
Make Good Sex |
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Zona fasiculata of suprarenal gland:
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Middle layer- widest layer
Long trabecules of cells: - adipose inclusions in cytoplasm - cells producing steroids Sinusoids in between trabecules Production of glucocorticoids and androgens |
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Zona reticulosa of suprarenal gland:
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Inner thinnest cortical layer
Non regular anastomous trabecules of cells: - small cells with lipofucin granules - elements with pyknoic nucleus Capillaries in between trabecules Produce glucocorticoids and androgens |
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Composition of suprarenal medulla:
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1. Anastomous trabecules of polyndr. cells:
- big nucleus - gER, MIT, GA, granules - adrenaline, noradrenaline, chromogranins, ATP - dopamine- beta- hydroxylase, Leu- and Met- enkefalin 2. In between trabecules- capillary bed 3. Rarely- parasympathetic ganglionic |
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Blood supply of suprarenal gland:
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1. aa.suprarenales sup., mediae and inf.
2. Subcapsular plexus 3. Capsular, cortical and medullary arteries 4. Inside medulla: arterial and venous blood 5. Vena suprarenalis |
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Langerhans islets:
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Endocrine part of panceras
Size: 0,1-0,2 mm Number: 1- 1,5 millions Different types of cells: A, B, D, PP, (F) Production: - insulin - glucagon - somatostatin - pancreatic polypeptide |
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Langerhans islets development:
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Differentiate form undifferentiated cells of panceras
Emerge from tubules First A cells then, B, D and PP Insular pole: all types mixed Shell islets: B- cells in the core with an A- shell Production: - insulin in 10th week - glucagon in 15th week |
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Disseminated endocrine cells:
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Endocrine cells of GIT
"Closed" type VS. "open" type Contain numerous granules Great number of different types: Lots of hormones regulating GIT functions |
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Endocrine glands:
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Hypothalamus
Hypophysis Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland |
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Anatomy of suprarenal gland:
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Located:
- retroperitoneal - level T11- T12 Surfcae: - Facies anterior+ posterior+ renalis Hilum: - at facies anterior - v. centralis - v.suprarenalis emerge here Have a capsule and have common corpus adiposum perirenale and fascia renalis with kidney |
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Vessels of suprarenal gland:
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1. aa. suprarenales (3)
2. Subcapsular plexus 3. Capsular, cortical and medullar aa. 4. In medulla: both arterial and venous blood 5. In medulla: plexus venosus medullaris---> vena centralis---> vena suprarenalis (1) |
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Pheochromocytome:
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Hypertension attacks (medullary)
|
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Cushing`s syndrome:
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Hyperfunction of cortex (endogenous hyperkortikalism):- peripheral disorder
|
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Cushing`s disease:
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Hyperfunction of cortex due to adenome og hypophysis= central disorder
|
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Conn`s syndrome:
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Hyperfunction of cortex leading to hyperaldosteronism
|
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Addison`s disease:
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Hypofunction of cortex leading to hypokortikalism
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Anatomy of pancreas:
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Exocrine and endocrine part
Topography: duodenal window L2 Secondary retroperitoneal organ Blood supply: islets vessels |
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Where in the pancreas do Beta cells predominate:
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In the core of the body and tail of pancreas
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Alpha- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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= Glucagonocytes
Have alpa- granules- spheroid 300 nm Produce glucagon- hyperglycaemic- glycogenolytic factor |
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Beta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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= Insulinocytes
Contain Beta- granules- spheroid, 300 nm "species specific" Produce insulin- hypoglycaemic factor |
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Delta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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= Somatostaniocytes
Contain delta- granules; spheroid 250 nm- totally filled One long cell process: paracrinne secretion Produce somatostatine |
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PP- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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Have bright 180 nm granules
Produce pancreatic polypeptide which regulates exocrine pancreas |
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G- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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Produce gastrine
|
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Alpha- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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= Glucagonocytes
Have alpa- granules- spheroid 300 nm Produce glucagon- hyperglycaemic- glycogenolytic factor |
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Beta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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= Insulinocytes
Contain Beta- granules- spheroid, 300 nm "species specific" Produce insulin- hypoglycaemic factor |
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Delta- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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= Somatostaniocytes
Contain delta- granules; spheroid 250 nm- totally filled One long cell process: paracrinne secretion Produce somatostatine |
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PP- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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Have bright 180 nm granules
Produce pancreatic polypeptide which regulates exocrine pancreas |
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G- cells of Langerhan`s islets:
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Produce gastrine
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Multiple endocrine neoplasia= MEN syndrome:
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Multiple neoplasia of endocrine glands
Usually hereditary (AD) 3 types: 1. MEN 1: Tumors of parathyroid gland, pancreas and hypophysis 2. MEN 2a: Medullary carcinoma of thyroid gland, pheochromocytoma and tumors of parathyroid gland 2. MEN 2b: Medullary carcinoma of thyroid gland, pheochromocytoma and neuromas |
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Pineal gland (glandula pinealis- "epiphysis"):
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1. Developmental relation to parietal eye- reaction to polarized light.
2. Located above upper posterior end of third ventricle (part of epithalamus and diencephalon) 3. Rudimentary endocrine gland with suppressive effect on gonadal functions---> pubertas praecox 4. Dorsally, projects over brainstem (over lamina quadrigemina mesencephali) |
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Pineal gland characteristics:
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1. Capsule from pia mater--> septula
2. Pinealocytes: - nucleus with prominent nucleolus - basophilic cytoplasm - production of melatonin (level changes throughout the day) 3. Interstitial/ astroglial cells (astrocytes)- rod like nucleus 4. Innervated by n.pinealis--> nonmyelinated nerve fibers |
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"Brain sand" of pineal gland:
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"Acervulus; corpus arenaceum":
- concentrations of protein material with Ca2+ salts - number increases with age - CT, MRI |
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Paraganglia:
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1. Chromafinne (former paraganglia sympathica):
- paraganglion aorticum abdominale "Zuckerkandii" - glomus coccygeum Luschklae - glomus jugulare 2. Without chromafinne reaction (former paraganglia parasympathica): - baro- and chemoreceptors - glomus caroticum and glomus aorticum |
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Glomus caroticum:
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In sinus caroticus at level C4- n.IX and X
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Glomus aorticum:
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In arcus aorticum- n.X
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Testes produce:
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Testosteron
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Ovaries produce:
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Estrogens and gestagenes
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Corpus luteum and placenta produce:
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HCG
|
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Glandulae oris:
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1. Glandulae oris majores:
- gl. parotis - gl. sublingualis - gl.submandibularis 2. Glandulae salivariae minores: - buccales - molares - labiales - palatinae - lingualis anterior (Blandini) - linguales posterior (Ebner) - radicis linguae (Weber) |
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Glandulae salivariae majores:
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Capsula (collagen fibers)--> septa
Secretory part: - serous, mucinous and myoepithelial (basket) cells System of ducts: - intralobular (intercalated--> striated--->) - excretory ---> interlobular--> interlobar--> principal--> oral cavity |
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Glandulae salivariae cells:
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1. Serous
2. Mucous 3. Cells of intercalated duct 4. Cells of striated duct |
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Serous cells:
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Acinus (pyramid shape)
Produce proteins Basophilic due to high ER, GA Apically located microvilli and secretory granula |
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Mucous cells:
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Cuboidal, columnar
Form tubules Produce mucus--> light granula (which can fuse) Viscous secretion--> distally than serous cells |
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Cells of intercalated duct:
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One layer flat/ low cuboidal epithelium
Lactoferin, lysosome Converge into striated ducts |
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Cells of striated duct:
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Radial arrangement
Striation= fold of BM+ mitochondria Cells transporting ions Forming hypotonic saliva |
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Glandula parotis:
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Ductus parotideus "Stenosis"---> above upper M2.
Pars profunda + superficialis Plexus parotideus n. VII Glandula parotidea accessoria Regio parotideomasseterica |
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Parasympathetic innervation of parotid gland:
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n.IX---> n.tympanicus--> n.petrous minor (Jacobson`s anastomosis) ---> ganglion oticum Arnoldi---> n.auriculotemporalis
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Sympathetic innervation of parotid gland:
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Truncus sympaticus--> ggl.cervicale sup.--> plexus a-meningeae mediae
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Structure of parotid gland:
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Pure serous, compound acinar gland.
Ramified acines, long ducts. Plasmocytes in lamina propria- IgA--> complexes with secretion component (synthesized in serous, intercalated and striated parts) PAS positive granules (polysaccharide, amylase) 25 % of saliva volume |
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Glandula submandibularis:
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Ductus submandibularis Whartoni--> caruncula sublingualis.
Trigonum submandibulare |
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Parasympathetic innervation of submandibular gland:
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n.VII.---> chorda tympani---> n.lingualis---> ganglion submandibulare
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Sympathetic innervation of submandibular gland:
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Truncus sympaticus--> ggl.cervicake sup. ---> plexus a.facialis
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Structure of submandibular gland:
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Seromucinous, compound tubulo-acinar gland.
Serous acines adjacent to mucinous tubules are transformed in serous demilunes (semiluna serosa) Serous elements prevail (basophilic cytoplasm) PAS positive granule 70% of saliva volume |
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Sublingual gland:
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Ductus sublingualis major Bartholini--> caruncula sublingualis
Ductus sublinguales minores--> plicae sublinguales Identical innervation as submandibular gland |
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Structure of sublingual gland:
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Seromucous, compound tubulo- acinar gland
Mucous cells prevail NO intercalated ducts Short striated ducts 5% of saliva volume |
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Description of pancreas:
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Caput (processus uncinatus incisura)
Collum Corpus (margines, facies) Cauda |
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Structure of pancreas:
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Ductus pancreaticus Wirsungi
(sphincter d.p) d.p.accessorius Santorini Insulae pancreaticae Langerhansi (1%) |
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Fixation of pancreas:
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lig.pancreaticosplenicum, -colicum
vasa mesenterica sup. |
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Topography of pancreas:
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Duodenal window L2
Secondary retroperitoneal organ |
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Arterial supply of pancreas:
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Caput:
1. Truncus coelicacus--> a.hepatica sommunis---> a.gastroduodenalis sup.post.+ sup.ant + aa.retroduodenales 2. a.mesenterica sup.--> a.pancreaticoduodenalis inf.--> ramus ant. + r.post Corpus et cauda: 1. Truncus coelicacus---> a.splenica -->rr.pancreatici |
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Veinous supply of pancreas:
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1. vv.pancreaticoduodenales--> v.mesenterica sup.--> v.portae
2. vv.pancreaticae--> v.splenica--> v.portae |
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Lymph drainage:
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n.l.pancreaticoduodenales, mesenterici sup.
---> n.l.lumbales |
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Nervous innervation of pancreas:
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1. Parasympathetic: n.X
2. Sympathetic: truncus sympaticus---> nn.splanchnici major+ minor---> ggl.coeliacum + mesentericum sup. |
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Pancreas, "the gland":
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Mixed gland:
1. Pars exocrina 2. Pars endocrina |
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Pars exocrina of pancreas:
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1. Serous, compund tubulo- acinar gland:
- serous cells (form acines, lot of ER, GA and apical zymogen granules) - no striated intralobular ducts - ductus intercalatus--> d.intralobularis---> d.interlobularis--> d.excretorius--> d.pancreaticus (+d.p.accessorius) |
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Secretion from exocrine part of pancreas:
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Water, ions, (chymo-)trypsinogen, karboxypeptidase, (deoxy-)ribonuclase, lipase, amylase, elastase
- secretin--> much fluid, HCO3-, neutralization of chymus - cholecystokinin---> much enzymes (release of granule) |
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Endocrine part of pancreas:
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Insulae pancreaticae= Langerhan`s islets
|
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Exocrine part of pancreas:
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Acines surrounded by basal membrane:
1. Exocrine cells of pancreas (pancreatocytus exocrinus) - zymogen granula 2. Centroacinar cells 3. Intercalated duct |
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Liver- description:
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Facies diaphragmatica/ area nuda
Impressio cardiaca/ visceralis (impression of organs-6) Margo inferior 4 lobes 8 segments (according to blood vessels branching) |
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Liver ligaments:
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Lig.teres hepatis
Venosus Coronarium/falciforme Triangulare dx. et sin. Hepatorenale Appendix fibrosa h. Lig. v. cavae |
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Fixation of liver:
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Suspenden on v.cava inf.
Grown together with diaphragm Supported by other organs Lig.teres hepatis |
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Portal circulation of liver:
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v. portae, a.hepatica propria, ductus hepaticus dx. et sin. (lymph vessels and nerves)
Fissurae (3)+ fossa vesicae fellae |
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Arterial supply of liver:
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Truncus coeliacus--> a.hepatica communis---> a.hepatica propria (+a.hepatica accessoria)--> r.dx.+sin.---> aa.interlobulares
|
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Venous supply of liver:
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v.portae--> vv.interlobulares---> capillaries---> vv.centrales-->v.hepaticae---> v.cava.inf
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Lymph drainage of liver are in 3 directions:
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1. n.l.coeliaci
2. n.l.mediastinales ant. 3. Mediastinales post. |
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Nervous innervation of liver:
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Parasympathetic: n.X
Sympathetic: truncus sympaticus--> plexus coeliacus--> plexus hepaticus Viscerosensory: n.phrenicus (peritoneum under liver as far as gallbladder) |
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Structure of liver:
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1. Tunica fibrosa Glissoni
2. Hepatocytes: - lamina hepatocytia (=trabecules of hepatocytes) - spatium perisinusoideum= Disse`s space - sinusoids in between (=irregulary extended capillaries with fenestrated epithelium) - von Kupffer`s cells (=macrocytophagus stellatus) - Ito`s cells (=fat storing cells- produce collagen for trabecules and store vit.a) - Canaliculus bilifer (wall is formed directly by plasmalemma of hepatocytes) |
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Hepatocyte components:
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Polyhedroc and eosinophilic cell
Large spheroid nucleus (can be polyploid) GER+ SER Lot of mitochondria Bile canaliculus Tight junctions Microvilli Disse`s space Endothelium |
|
Lobulus hepaticus:
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1. Have 3 zones:
- Central - Intermediate - Peripheral 2. Structural unit of liver parenchyma 3. Hexagonal shape 4. v.centralis 5. Hepatocytes radiate 6. Spatium portale 7. Blood flows from periphery to centre |
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Portal area/canal/zone (spatium portale):
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1. Portal triad:
- venula (<-- v.portae), PV - arteriola (<-- a.hepatica), A - interlobular bile duct (---> ductus hepaticus), B (unilayered cuboidal epithelium) Perivascular fibrous capsule, space of Mall, lymph capillaries 2. Portal lobule: - centre= portal triad |
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Liver acinus of Rappaport:
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Rhomboid
Functional unit According to blood supply (preterminal branch of hepatic arteriol) 3 zones (selective damage of hepatocytes) |
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Function of liver:
|
1. Synthesis of proteins:
- continuos release into blood - albumin, fibrinogen, protrombin, transferrin, lipoproteins 2. Secretion of bile: - water, ions, bile acids, phospholipids, cholesterol, bilirubin 3. Metabolic: - accumulation of metabolites: TAG, glycogen, vit.A - gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, deamination of AA - detoxification: oxidation, methylation, conjugation |
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Intrahepatic bilde ducts:
|
canaliculus bilifer--> canalis bilifer of Hering--> ductus bilifer interlobularis
|
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Extrahepatic bile ducts:
|
Ductus hepaticus dx. et sin.--> d.h.communis---> connection with d.cysticus---> d.choledochus (m.sphincter d.ch.)--> ampulla hepatopancreatica (m.sphincter a.h. Oddi)---> papilla duodeni major Vateri---> duodenum
|
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Description of gallbladder (vesica fellea/biliaris):
|
Fundus
Corpus Infundibulum Collum Ductus cysticus (plica spiralis) |
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Arterial supply of gallbladder:
|
Truncus coeliacus---> a.hepatica communis---> a.hepatica propria, r.dx.---> a.cystica
(veins corresponds to aa. --->v.portae) |
|
Lymph drainage of gallbladder:
|
n.l.hepatici
|
|
Topography of gall bladder:
|
Trigonum cystohepaticum Caloti
Intraperitoneal organ |
|
Bile duct and gallbladder structure:
|
1. Tunica mucosa:
- one layer columnar epithelium - frequent folds - collum- mucous tubulous glands - ductus choledochus- glands 2. Tunica muscularis: - cholecystokinin--> contraction - perimuscular layer of connective tissue 3. Tunica serosa |
|
Function of gall bladder:
|
Accumulation and concentration of bile by absorption of water (30- 50 ml)
|