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67 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Commonly Required Macrominerals
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• Calcium (Ca2+)
• Potassium (K+) • Magnesium (Mg2+) • Phosphorus PO43-) • Sodium (Na+) • Sulfur (S-) • Chlorine (Cl-) |
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Commonly Required Microminerals or Trace Minerals
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• Iron (Fe2+,3+)
• Manganese (Mn2+) • Copper • Zinc • Iodine • Cobalt • Selenium |
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• Minerals that are required in minute amounts and are almost never deficient
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- Aluminum (Al) - Boron (B)
- Chromium (Cr) - Nickel (Ni) - Silicon (Si) - Tin (Sn) - Vanadium (V) |
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• Minerals that are required in minute amounts but are more commonly considered toxic
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- Arsenic (As) - Barium (Ba)
- Molybdenum (Mo) - Bromine (Br) - Flourine (F) - Lithium (Li) - Cadmium (Cd) - Lead (Pb) |
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• Minerals that are not required and are commonly considered toxic:
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- Mercury (Hg)
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A. Functions of Ca2+
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1. Bone - Ca, PO4, F Hydroxyapatite
2. Muscle contractions and nerve conduction (Ca ATP ase) 3. Enzyme activators 4. Cellular intermediary (second messenger) 5. Blood clotting |
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B. Tissue Distribution
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1. Skeleton-crystallized, non-exchangeable bone
2. Exchangeable bone 3. Blood, tissue fluids-plasma Ca is 50% free ion |
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Ca2+ Homeostasis
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1. Absorption – both facilitated and active
2. Excretion – urine, sweat, feces 3. Ca-regulatory hormones – PTH, Calcitonin, Calcitriol 4. Blood Ca2+ control 5. Signs of Hypocalcemia: tetany (“milk fever”, “parturient paresis”) |
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D. Dietary calcium deficiency
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1. Calcium to Phosphorus ratio is not very important but Ca should exceed P
2. Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism • Big Head Disease • Distorted snout 3. Signs of Diet Deficiency a. Rickets – failure of bone mineralization while growing b. Osteomalacia – poor mineralization or mineral loss in an adult (adult-onset rickets) c. Osteoporosis – loss of mineral coupled with loss of bone protein matrix |
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E. Ca Requirement:
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.2 - 4%
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G. Ca in feedstuffs
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1. Legume forages-high in Ca; grains-low
2. mineral supplements: 3. animal byproducts: meat and bone meal, fishmeal |
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Phosphorus Functions
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1. Bone formation (with Ca2+, Vit D)
2. Energy metabolism (ATP) 3. Regulatory molecules - Protein kinase and phosphatases 4. Blood or intracellular buffers (pK of phosphate is 6.8) HPO4-2 ↔ H2PO4-1 pK = 6.8 5. Role in reproduction ? |
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C. Phosphourous Homeostasis
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1. Absorption
2. Excretion 3. Regulatory hormones: PTH, calcitriol |
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D. Deficiency signs for P
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1. Rickets
2. Osteomalacia 3. Osteoporosis 4. Pica: abnormal appetite 5. Reduced fertility in cattle and sheep |
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P requirements
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.15 - .5%
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P toxicity
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• not a problem, but too much P can increase requirement for Ca
• too much P – environmental concern |
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G. Phosphorus in feedstuffs
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1. Grains - well supplied with P, but 60% is in phytate form
• Phytate, phytic acid, phytin - can be made available with use of enzyme phytase - phytate forms chelates with other minerals and can cause other deficiencies - phytase -- may help decrease P in animal wastes (esp. aquaculture) - read pages 172-173 of text; see Figure 11.6 2. Forages – often need some P supplementation 3. Supplemental Sources: (often the most expensive mineral to supplement) • most common form = Dicalcium phosphate • Monosodium phoshpate • Steamed bone meal, Deflourinated rock phosphate |
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Magnesium Functions:
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1. Enzyme cofactor (mitochondrial ATP metabolism, protein synthesis)
2. Bone formation 3. Ionized mineral in some tissues |
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Mg deficiency signs
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1. Grass Tetany orstaggers: hypomagnesence tetany
2. Unthrifty animals, poor performance, anorexia |
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Mg requirement
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~0.2%
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Mg toxicity
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at ~0.4% alters Ca, P metabolism, causes diarrhea
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Mg sources
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1. Widely spread in nature; abundant but bioavailability of dietary Mg can be low
2. Dolomite Limestone (high in Mg, this can be a problem) 3. Most common supplements: Mg oxide, Mg Sulfate |
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Sodium, Potassium, Chloride Functions
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1. Osmoregulation --cellular integrity - gives structure to cells
2. Acid Base Balance: Na+, K+, Cl-, HC03- 3. Ion transport and conduction --- Na - K - ATPase (Pump) |
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Sodium, Potassium, Chloride tissue distribution
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1. Na+ Major extracellular cation
2. K+ Major intracellular cation 3. Cl- Major extracellular anion |
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Sodium, Potassium, Chloride deficiencies
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1. signs of deficiency
• general malaise, unthrifty • poor osmotic regulation-dehydrated • no clear signs of electrolyte deficiencies 2. occurrence of deficiencies: • heat stress • strenuous exercise • diarrhea |
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Sodium, Potassium, Chloride requirements
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• K: 0.3 - 1%
• Na: 0.1 - 0.2% • Cl: 0.1 - 0.25% |
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G. Electrolytes in feeds
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1. Potassium
• low in cereal grains • high in most Michigan forages • can be supplemented with KCl 2. Sodium and Chloride • low in most feeds, but high in some water (thumb of MI) • easily supplemented with salt (NaCl), which is 40% Na, 60% Cl |
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Sulfur Functions
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1. Component of many organic compounds, and hence functions in protein, lipid, and CHO metabolism, connective tissue and blood clotting
2. Minor role in acid-base balance |
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B. Deficiency signs for S
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• Inorganic S is not required by animal tissues but S-containing AA and vitamins are required. Lack of these will depress growth.
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S requirement
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Requirement: 0.1 - 0.2%
Toxic at 0.4% - 0.5% |
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E. Sources of sulfur
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1. S-containing AA and S-containing vitamins
2. In general, if protein requirement is met, S requirement will be met 3. Supplemental Sources: CaSO4 (gypsum) for ruminants fed NPN rule of thumb: add 1 part gypsum per 5 parts urea |
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Copper (Cu2+, Cu+) Function
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• Cofactor in many enzymes
• Mitochondrial electron transport • Maintenance of connective tissue and blood vessels • Bone formation, connective tissue integrity/cross-linking • Integrity of central nervous system (CNS) • Red cell formation |
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Copper Absorption and Metabolism
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not very efficient, stored with copper containing proteins, especially in the liver
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Copper deficiency
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• Anemia
• Ataxia, nervous degeneration (Swayback, Falling disease) • Degeneration of blood vessels -- spontaneous bursting of the aorta (Poultry) • Depigmentation (Melanin synthesis) • Diarrhea, abnormal joint-ligament/cartilage impairment • Steely wool |
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copper requirement
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3 - 10 ppm
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copper toxicity
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toxic at 25 - 100 ppm, but differs with species Tolerance ratio = 5:1
-- hemolytic crisis (hemolysis, jaundice, and death) |
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iron function
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• Hemoglobin and myoglobin: O2 transport and availability
• Electron transport chain in the mitochondria (cytochromes) • Metalloenzymes |
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Iron absoprtion
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• Absorption is not efficient, but iron is recycled efficiently in the body
• Stored in Ferritin, Transferrin, Myoglobin, Fe-proteins • Body holds on to Fe tenaciously • Only way to lose much iron is with blood loss |
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iron deficiency
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• Anemia:
• Fe-deficiency anemia: microcytic anemia hypochromic anemia (end stage) • Thumps/Respiratory Insufficiency • Unthrifty, poor growth • Susceptibility to Fe deficiency: piglets born in indoors |
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6. Sources of iron
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• Bioavailabilty varies -- “heme” iron is more available than other sources and increases the absorption of non-heme iron
• Milk • Grains, forages • Soil • Injections of Fe - Dextran for young pigs • Oral supplementation |
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Manganese (Mn) Function
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cofactor/activator of enzyme systems for
• Mitochondrial metabolism -- oxidative phosphorylation • formation of organic matrix of bone • protein, fatty acid, and cholesterol metabolism |
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Mn deficiency
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• Poultry - perosis (slipped tendon)
• CNS - degeneration - ataxia • Bone malformation |
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Zinc Functions
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• Metallo enzymes --- cofactor/activator of several enzyme systems
• Nucleic acid proteins |
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Zinc deficiency
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• Poor appetite, growth retardation, poor fertility
• Pigs: parakeratosis-thickening of epithelial cells • Poultry - hyperkeratosis |
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5. Zinc sources
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• Forages have plenty, grains are low
• TM salt |
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cobalt function
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component of vitamin B12 so bacteria need it to make B12
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cobalt deficiency
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• Lack of appetite, tissue wasting, anemia
• Improper propionic acid metabolism • Particular problem in northern Michigan: Grand Traverse Disease |
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Iodine function
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Synthesis of thyroid hormones ---- T4 (Thyroxine) and T3 (tri-iodo-thyronine)
- structure of thyroxin is on page 189 of text |
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iodine deficiency
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• Hypothyroidism --- impaired energy metabolism -- lowered metabolic rate
• Deficiency in maternal diet causes stillbirths and weak, hairless neonate • Deficiency in adult causes goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) |
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Selenium functions
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• Antioxidant: component of glutathione peroxidase
• involved in Vitamin E metabolism • Many selenoproteins and metalloenzymes (see Table 12.7 of text) |
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Se Toxicity
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toxic at 2-5 ppm Tolerance ratio = 10:1
• Alkali disease • Blind staggers • Can counteract with arsenic |
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6. Sources of Se
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• TM salt
• Special premixes (Se-200 is 200 mg/kg = 200 ppm) • Injectable Se, by prescription only |
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Molybdenum (Mo) Function
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Unclear, but needed in xanthine oxidase (also needed in plants)
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Mo Toxicity
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occurs at ~6 ppm
• occurs commonly with organic soils with high pH • Interferes with Cu metabolism • Diarrhea (Profuse and Stinky!) – “peat scours”, “teart scours” • Depressed growth, emaciation |
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Fluorine
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deficiency or toxicity causes chalky, mottled teeth
added to drinking water for humans in the US to prevent dental cavies (tooth decay) |
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• Chelated minerals
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have increased bioavailability but usually not worth the added expense
-natural chelates |
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• Vitamin A precursor
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• Beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in the small intestine or liver
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• Vitamin D precursors
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• Ergosterol uv light ergocalciferol
• Cholesterol 7-dehyrocholesterol cholecalciferol |
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• Activation of vitamin D
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Calciferol 25-hydroxycalciferol 1,25-dihydroxycalciferol
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Vitamin Stability
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• many vitamins are susceptible to one of the following:
• heat (eg.: folic acid) • light (eg.: riboflavin) • oxidation (eg.: vitamin E) • some just gradually degrade in solution (vitamin C) • some of the more stable ones are niacin, thiamin, pantothenic acid |
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Vitamin bioavailibility
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• availability of fat-soluble vitamins is increased by fat in the diet
• sometimes, some vitamins are tightly bound to plant other compounds and not very available (eg.: niacin in corn) |
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Antioxidant
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Selenium and Vitamin E: the major antioxidants
• Lipid peroxides result in harmful “free radicals” that damage cells. • Vitamin E (fat soluble) prevents formation of lipid peroxides. • Se is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase (water soluble), an enzyme that destroys lipid peroxides once they form. • During marginal Vitamin E status, adequate Se is more critical than during good Vitamin E status. |
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Other compounds with anti-oxidant properties
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• carotene (fat-soluble)
• other carotenoids: lycopene in tomatoes, watermelon • vitamin C (water-soluble). • other phenolic compounds • flavonoids (also plant pigments) o procyanidins in dark chocolate o proanthocyanidins in grapes, cranberries o catechin in tea o resveratrol in grapes/red wine |
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A
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-Vision (requires retinol or retinal; retinoic acid does not help)
-Maintenance of epithelial cells (lining of digestive, repro tracts) -Growth -Bone formation Night Blindness Epithelial cell degeneration Calf scours Lusterless skin Green forages Dehy-alfalfa Fish oils Vit A acetate or palmitate |
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D
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-Bone formation-mineralization
-Ca absorption from the gut Osteomalacia-softening of bone (adult onset rickets, loss of minerals) Osteoporosis-loss of bone mass (both mineral and organic matter) Rickets-poor bone mineralization in young Posterior paralysis in sows Soft egg shells Plant products containing Ergosterol Animal products containing cholest. A-D feeding oil |
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E
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-Anti-oxidant (lipid-soluble)-need more vitamin E with dients that are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
-protects vitamin A against oxidation -muscle structure/color -reproduction Muscle degeneration-white muscle disease Liver necrosis-damaged membranes Encephalomalacia-softening of the brain -ataxia-incoordination, paralysis Exudative diathesis-sores d Green growing plants, wheat germ oil, alpha-tocopherol |
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K
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Hemorrhaging -
prolonged clotting time Menadione (only needed in poultry) |