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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Methods for classifying society
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-technology
-ideology -economy -social organization |
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technology
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-tools and knowledge for creating useful things
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ideology
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-way of viewing the world
-conceptual framework |
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economy
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-method of subsistence
-way people gather materials that they need |
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social organization
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-rules/customs that govern relationships between people
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attribute
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-used to help classify artifacts
-any observable, definable trait -stylistic, morphological, technological |
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stylistic attributes
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-easily observable aspects (color, shape, texture)
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morphological attributes
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-aspects that can be measured/quantified
-length, width, thickness |
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technological attributes
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-raw materials and aspects of the manufacturing process
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Purpose of classification
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-creates order by dividing data into groups
-allows for comparison -helps describe/quantify variety -discuss objects in terms of "types" (represent sets of attributes) |
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Morgan & Tylor
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-19th c.
-human groups by technology: -savagery -barbarism -civilization |
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unilinear evolution
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-concept: all societies pass through stages of evolution --> more advanced
-some get "stuck" -cultural complexity=cultural worth |
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elam service
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-classified society based on:
-size -subsistence -social organization -band-tribe-chiefdom-state continuum |
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band
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-20-50 members
-hunt/gather -egalitarian -mobile -autonomous -min material culture -e.g. !Kung, Aborigines |
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tribe
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-larger than band
-pastoral/horticultural -nominal leader -kinship; ceremony; territory -e.g. Maasai |
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chiefdom
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-tens of thousands
-agricultural -formal authority -ranked society; inequality -specialists -sacred places -e.g. Zimbabwe, Mississippian |
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state
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-large pop./territory
-agriculture and industry -stratified hierarchy -ruling elite -full-time specialists -laws, military, taxes -e.g. Egypt |
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New Archaeology (Processual Arch)
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-Patt Jo Watson
-through 1980s -past can be known -archaeologists can be objective -scientific method |
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Post-Processual Archaeology
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-Ian Hodder
-past is not objective -past that we perceive is influenced and limited by our own cultural context/experiences |
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Gifford-Gonzales
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-Real Flinstones: examines trends in representation of the past
-icons, motifs/schemata: -skullery maid -madonna w/child -man the mighty hunter/noble savage -man in dynamic motion |
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icon
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-evocative symbols that tell preexisting, gendered stories of heroism, motherhood, & societal roles to enculturated viewers
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schemata/motif
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-representations of objects, replicated from one form to another w/little variation in form
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direct vs. indirect dating
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-direct=based on object itself
-indirect=based on related/associated objects |
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strength of association
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-degree of certainty that the objets you are indirectly dating are asoociated
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Law of superposition
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-lower layers of the soil represent older periods of time
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Index Fossil Concept
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-Will Smith (19th c.)
-strata of the same age will contain similar fossils -helped relate layers between sites |
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Seriation Dating
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-arranging objects into an order where adjacent objects are more alike than those farther apart
-basic principles: -recognizable style -changes in style are gradual |
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Stylistic seriation
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-arranging artifacts into sequence based on shape/style
-e.g. petrie naqada: funerary jars from Egypt |
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frequency seriation
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-determines sequence of deposits by examining frequency of certain types
-follows "battleship curve" -e.g. Deetz, NE gravestones |
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Willard Libby
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-studied cosmic radiation (high NRG neutrons collide to form isotopes)
-helped develop Carbon dating |
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Radiocarbon dating
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-C13/C14 isotopes
-half life of C14 = 5730 years -less C14 = older artifiact -used for: plants, bones, charcoal, any part of C cycle -300-100k ya |
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AMS dating
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-Accel Mass Spec
-counts C14 atomes directly -needs only very small sample |
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Limitations of Absolute Dating
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-omits context
-dates are statistical -"dating gap" |
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K/Ar dating
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-half-life=1.3 billion years
-500,000 years is earliest -must use volcanic rock -large error |
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dating gap
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-methods are limitied
-less accurate absolute dating information between 50k-500kya |
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analogical reasoing
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-process by which identity of unknown things/relations is deduced using known things
-main form used by archaelogists |
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!Kung
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-hunter-gatherer tribe in S.Africa
-mobile; egalitarian -forced into reservations -high rates of hunger, TB -N!ai is criticized/gossiped about for working w/white people and not sharing enough |
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Dr. Kathleen Cook
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-researching midwestern small towns during econ revitalization in 1980s/90s
-Green Hills & Southwood -key terms: -leveling behaviors -norms -coffee groups; gossip |
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Pliocene
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-oldest geological period
- ~5 mya - 1.75 mya |
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Pleistocene
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-geological period
- ~1.75 mya - 10 kya |
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Holocene
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-latests geological period
- ~10kya |
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Archaeological Stages
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-Lower Paleolithic: 2.6 mya-200 kya
-Middle Paleolithic: 200kya - 40kya -Upper Paleolithic: 40kya - 10kya -called Early/Middle/Late Stone Age in Sub-Saharan Africa |
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hominin
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-humans and their ancestor (including australopiths)
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Australopithecus
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-early hominin genus of africa
-bipedal -mixed human/ape teeth -prognathus face -post-cranial ~ human |
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bipedalism
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-"beginning of human story"
-frees hands: carry objects/food -allows long distance travel efficiently -lessens thermal stress |
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Gracile Australopithecines
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-slender form
-ape-like face; post-cranial~human -A. Africanus -A. Afarensis -avg. cranial capacity ~450 cm^3 |
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Hunting vs. Scavenging
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-hunt smaller game
-scavenge larger game -late access=partial skeletons, less meaty parts -hunted remains=cuts on meaty bones, few carnivore marks -scavenged=cuts on less meaty, more carnivore marks |
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Hunting + some scavenging theorists
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-Leaky's
-Glynn Isaac --> "home-base" -Manual Dominguez-Rodrigo |
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Savenging theorists
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-Binford --> late access; marginal
-Henry Bunn --> early access -Robert Bluemenshine --> Riparian scavenging |
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Riparian Scavenging
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-analyzing cut/gnaw marks to distinguish between kills/scavenges
-determining what materials would remain in different situations |
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Home-base hypothesis
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-Glynn Isaac
-based on central base foraging theory -groups would return after gathering food/materials -increased social connection, food sharing, drove stone tool production |
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Processing place theory
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-Lewis Binford
-sites=places where food was processed |
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Stone cache hypothesis
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-Potts
-sites=places where tools stored |
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Social activity hypothesis
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-Marshall & Rose; Dominguez-R
-carnivore threat overrated -engage in social activity w/tree coverings for retreat from carnivores |
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First signs of fire
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-Kenya, 1.5mya: burned stone
-S.America, 1.3mya: burned bones -Gesher ya'apov: tool production near fireplace |
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Lower Paleolithic
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- ~5mya-200kya
- early humans(australo --> erectus) - emergence of culture - stone tool use/manufacture - fire |
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Archaic Homo
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- ~600k-200kya
- high morphological variation - h. heidelbeorgensis - persistence of homo erectus - W Europe = Neanderthals - Africa = H. sapiens |
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Morphology of Archaic Homo
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-bigger skulls
-mosaic of primitive (h.erectus) and derived(h.sapiens) characters -large, heavy face |
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Archaeological evidence of Arhcaic Homo
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-intermittent activity sites
-scattered faun -more fire evidence -increased technology -Boxgrove, England -schoeningen spears (400kyo) |
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Neanderthals
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-200k-40kya
-W. Eurasia -Neander Valley, Germany -Marchellin Boulle |
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Neanderthal Morphology
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-wide nose, big front teeth, occipital bun, big brow ridge, projecting mid-face
-short,wide trunk/waist -cold-adapted -heavily muscled; esp. upper |
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Levallois technology
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-Neanderthals show advanced stone tool production
-standardized flake production from prepared cores |
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Mousterian tool production
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-more advanced stone tools
-different interpretations: Bordes, Binford, Dibble |
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Francois Bordes
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-Different sets of beads/stone tools represent different ethnic groups or cultures
-1911 |
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Lewis/Sally Binford
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-1966
-differences in stone tools represent different site uses/seasonal uses |
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Dibble
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-variety of stone tools results from continued modification/retouching of blades/flakes
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Neanderthal hunting/diet
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-skilled hunters --> massive kill sites
-high protein diet (from isotopes) -microfossils/dental analysis show plant consumption/cooked foods -diet shows wide variety depending on location |
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Neanderthal burials/symbolism
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-lots of intentional burials
-perhaps unintentional grave goods -some elaboration of burials -shell beads |
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Middle Paleolithic
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-200k-40kya
-variable environments -glacial periods -evolution of early h.sapiens/neanderthals from australo -increased symbolism/burials |
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Upper Paleolithic
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-rapid expansion out of Africa
-variable environments -burials/art/symbolism |
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Phases of Upper Paleolithic
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-Aurignacian: 34-27kya
-Gravettian: 27-21kya -Solutrean: 21-16kya -Magdalenian: 16-11kya |
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Aurignacian
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-34-27kya
-advanced blades, composite tools -osseus artifacts -increased diet breadth -art/symbolic work: shells, figures, cave art |
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Gravettian
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-27-21kya
-"hunt-gath golden age" -raw material diversity increase -composite tools increase -increased social connect/networks -elaborate burials -mobile w/structures -venus figurines |
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Solutrean
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-21-16kya
-throwing spears; intricate blades -eyed needles --> clothing |
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Magdalenian
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-16-11kya
-glacial period ends; people spread -"reindeer people" -cave art |
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Parietal Art
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-cave art
-naturalistic, accurate animal depictions -weird human/human+animal -theory that some designs might mirror entoptic phenomena -Lascaux, Chauvet -"palimpsets" = painting over existing work -Sympathetic magic, trophyism, sexual symbolism, info/communication |
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A. Africanus
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-Raymond Dart (1924)
-Taung, S. Africa - 3-2.2mya |
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A. Afarensis
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-East African
-Donald Johanson (1973) -Lucy; majority of skeleton - 3-2.2 mya |
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Robust Australopithecines
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-different genus: Paranthropus
-robust faces, jaws, teeth -sagittal crest: bony ridge on skull, attaches chewing muscles -A. Robustus & A. Boisei |
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A. Robustus
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-S. Africa
-robust austral - 2– 1mya |
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A. Boisei
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-East Africa
-Mary Leaky found Zinjanthropus (1959) -Olduvi gorge - 2.2 mya |
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Laetoli
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-Tanzania; discovered 1976
-showed footprints → indicating bipedals |
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Homo Habilis
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-first of our species: ~2.4 mya
-bigger brain: 600-700 cc -less ape-like: reduced dentition, rounded cranium, steeper forehead -opposable thumb -stone tool use/manufacture -Gona River, Ethiopia; Olduvi; FxJj 50 (Koobi Fora, Kenya) |
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Sources of Analogy
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-ethnographies
-historical sources -actualistic studies |
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Ethnographies as source of Analogy
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-limited by lack of time depth (only ~100 years old)
-limited by anthropological focus |
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Actualistic studies
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-used to connect human behavior to material remains
-ethnoarchaeology: ethnography w/goal of understanding behavior → remains -experimental archaeology: aid interpretation w/behavior duplication |
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Homo Erectus
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-East Africa; 1.8 mya
-Nariokatome Boy found in W Lake Turkana, Africa -evidence of hunting, plant use |
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Tool making skills
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-knowledge of raw material
-strength, coordination -understanding acute angles |
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Olduwan Stone tools
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-Olduvi gorge
-earliest stone tools -hammer stone -bifacial chopper -flake |
