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136 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Energy |
The ability to do work or transfer heat |
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Metabolism |
Sum total of all chemical reactions that occur in organisms |
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Catabolic Pathway |
Release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds |
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Anabolic Pathway |
Consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones |
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Substrate-level phosphorylation |
Direct transfer of a phosphate group to an ADP from a donor (Less energy is made in this way) |
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Oxidative Phosphorylation |
Utilizes redox reactions and an electrochemical gradient of H+ to produce energy (More energy is made in this way) |
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Photosynthesis Reaction |
6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
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Thylakoids |
Disks containing chlorophyll, electron transport molecules, & enzymes |
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Stroma |
Space between grana |
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Biochemical Pathway |
Series of redox reactions linked together |
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Cellular respiration |
Chemical breakdown of food molecules into usable energy |
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Where do Light Reactions take place? |
Grana (thylakoid membrane) |
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Where does the Calvin cycle take place? |
Stroma |
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Excited electrons are picked up by ________ when they lose their energy (how many are picked up by each of these?) |
NADP+ ; 2 electrons each |
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When H2O is broken down into H+ and OH- ions, H+ is attracted to NADP+ to form ______ |
NADPH |
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What are the products of the Light Reactions? |
NADPH, O2, ATP |
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Stroma |
Thick fluid of the chloroplast where Calvin Cycle takes place |
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What are the reactants of the Calvin Cycle? (What is used to begin the cycle?) |
CO2 & it combines with RuBP |
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What products of the Light Reactions power the Calvin Cycle? |
ATP & NADPH |
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What is the important product of photosynthesis that is produced after the Calvin cycle? |
G3P |
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Cellular respiration definition |
A metabolic pathway; a series of chemical reactions in cells that catabolizes organic molecules to harvest energy
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Equation of Cellular respiration |
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20 (+ATP) (Opposite of photosynthesis!) |
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4 steps of Cellular Respiration |
1. Glycolysis 2. Intermediate Step 3. Kreb's cycle (Citric acid cycle) 4. Electron-transport chain (Oxidative phosphorylation) |
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Glycolysis |
Breaks down the 6-carbon sugar into smaller molecules, yielding pyruvate |
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Intermediate step |
Converts pyruvate from glycolysis into Acetyl CoA |
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Kreb's Cycle (Citric acid cycle) |
Completes the breakdown, begins with Acetyl CoA |
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Electron-transport chain (Oxidative phosphorylation) |
These reactions are used to form the bulk of the ATP produced by an organism |
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Folds on the inner membrane are called ______ |
cristae |
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Internal fluid inside the mitochondria is called the _______ |
matrix |
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Where does glycolysis occur? Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic? |
cytoplasm ; anaerobic |
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Step One of glycolysis (Energy Investment) |
First 5 reactions that convert the starting molecule of glucose into two 3-carbon molecules called G3P ; uses ATP |
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Step 2 of glycolysis (Energy Harvest) |
Second 5 reactions that begin with the two G3P molecules and converts them into pyruvate; ATP is made by substrate-level phosphorylation |
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What is the net gain of ATP of Glycolysis? |
2 ATP, but NADH will produce more later |
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Intermediate step |
Pyruvate made in glycolysis enters the mitochondrian where it's oxidized into Acetyl CoA |
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What are the products of the Intermediate step? |
2 molecules of Acetyl CoA, 2 molecules of CO2, and 2 NADH |
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Where does Citric Acid cycle take place? |
In the matrix of the mitochondrian |
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Quick Summary of Citric Acid Cycle (not necessarily to be answered, just helpful) |
Acetyl CoA is oxidized which forms CO2 & electrons are passed to electron carriers NADH & FADH2. 2 ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation. Electrons are transferred to 6 NADH & a similar molecule, 2FADH2. The last 4 carbons from the glucose are lost as 4 CO2. |
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Where does Electron transport (during Electron-transport chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation) occur? |
Across the inner membrane of the mitochondria (Most of the ATP is made here) |
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What two molecules transfer electrons to the Electron Transport chain? (hint: these are both involved in the Citric Acid cycle) |
NADH & FADH2 |
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Electrons are eventually passed to what molecule, reducing it to H2O? |
Oxygen (O2) |
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Approximately how many ATP are made during the electron-transport chain? |
26-28 ATP |
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Quick summary of Electron-transport chain (Not necessarily answered, just helpful) |
Electrons release energy as they are passed down the chain, causing H+ to move out of the matrix.At the end of the chain, electrons are transferred to O2, reducing it to H2OApproximately 26-28 ATP molecules are produced by ATP synthase by the process of chemiosmosis. |
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Reactants of photosynthesis |
CO2 & H2O |
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Products of photosynthesis |
C6H12O6 & O2 |
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What are the other processes by which cells can produce ATP without oxygen? (Anaerobic processes) |
1.Anaerobic respiration 2. Fermentation |
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Anaerobic respiration |
A catabolicprocess where inorganicmolecules other than oxygen accept electrons atthe end of the electron transport chain |
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Fermentation |
A catabolic process that harvests a limited amount of ATP from glucose without the use of an electron-transport chain |
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What are the two types of fermentation? |
1. Alcohol fermentation 2. Lactic acid fermentation |
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Alcohol fermentation |
Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol through a series of steps, releases CO2 |
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Lactic acid fermentation |
Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid through a series of steps, does not release CO2 |
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Is meiosis a form of sexual or asexual reproduction? |
Sexual |
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After meiosis, an organism inherits how much of their DNA from each parent? |
1/2 from each parent |
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What is another name for sex cells used in Meiosis & what are the two sex cells that are used? |
Gametes; Sperm & egg cell |
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Gametes have how many chromosomes? What percent is this of normal (somatic) body cells? |
23 chromosomes, which is half the number of somatic cells |
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Term for the resulting cell when a sperm fertilizes an egg |
Zygote |
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What is a cell called that has 46 chromosomes? (two "sets" of 23 chromosomes) |
Diploid |
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What is a cell called that only has one set of 23 chromosomes? |
Haploid |
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Two chromosomes that make a matched pair in a diploid cell are referred to as _____________ chromosomes |
Homologous |
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The process of Meiosis makes the ________ cell a. Haploid b. Diploid |
Haploid |
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The process of Fertilization makes the ________ cell a. Haploid b. Diploid |
Diploid |
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How many times does a diploid cell divide in order to form 4 haploid cells during Meiosis? |
Twice |
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The two separate divisions in Meiosis are called what? (not a trick question) |
Meiosis I & Meiosis II |
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Meiosis I results in the production of ________ (#) cells, each of which has ________(#) the number of chromosomes as a regular body cell |
2 cells ; 1/2 |
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In Meiosis II, those two cells divide to produce _____(#) cells, each of which has _______(#) the number of chromosomes |
4 cells ; 1/2 |
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_________ occurs when the nuclei from sperm and egg cells fuse to form the zygote |
Fertilization |
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What is the benefit of sexual reproduction compared to asexual reproduction? |
Sexual reproduction allows for genetic variation, which gives the zygote produced a new combination of characteristics different from both parents and all other offspring |
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3 Different causes of genetic variation |
1. Independent Assortment 2. Random Fertilization 3. Crossing over |
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Independent assortment |
Every chromosome pair orients independently of the others during meiosis. |
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Random fertilization |
The human egg cell is fertilized randomly by one sperm, leading to genetic variety in the zygote |
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Crossing over |
Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information |
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Potential problems in meiosis (Not necessarily answered, just helpful) |
In Nondisjunction, the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate during anaphase & gametes with an incorrect # of chromosomes are produced. Also, if the gamete takes place in fertilization, a zygote with the wrong # of chromosomes in produced. Ex. Down Syndrome is a condition where an individual has an extra chromosome 21 (Also referred to as trisomy 21) |
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Who was the first person to investigate the patterns of inheritance? |
Gregor Mendel |
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Units of information (a piece of DNA) about specific traits, each located at a particular locus on a chromosome are called _______ |
Genes |
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Diploid cells have how many genes for each trait? |
2 for each trait, one on each homologous chromosome |
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Gametes have how many genes for each trait? |
1 for each trait |
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Various alternative forms of a gene for the same trait are called ________ |
Alleles Ex. One allele of the gene for flower color is purple flowers, and another one for flower color is white flowers |
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When homologous chromosomes have different alleles for a gene, it is called __________ |
Homozygous (condition) |
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When homologous chromosomes have different alleles for a gene, it is called ___________ |
Heterozygous (condition) |
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The allele that is expressed in a heterozygous condition is said to be the ___________ allele |
Dominant |
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The allele that does not get expressed in a heterozygous condition is said to be the _________ allele |
Recessive |
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How is a dominant allele expressed? How is a recessive allele expressed? |
Dominant = A (Uppercase letter) Recessive = a (lowercase letter) |
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The genes present in an organism are called the ___________ |
Genotype |
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The expression of the traits (visible, physical characteristics) in an organism are called the ____________ |
phenotype |
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The two members of a homologous allele pair separate from each other during ___________ of Meiosis |
Anaphase I |
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Which trait would be dominant in this case for flowers? a. P for purple flower b. p for white flower |
a. P for purple flower |
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What gametes can the two organisms PP and pp produce? |
PP - can only produce dominant P gametes pp - can only produce recessive p gametes |
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What is the expected genotype ratio for the cross of a homozygous dominant PP purple flower and a homozygous recessive pp white flower? |
100% heterozygous genotype of Pp |
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What is the expected phenotype ratio for the cross of a homozygous dominant PP purple flower and a homozygous recessive pp white flower? |
100% Purple flowers (All offspring will have the heterozygous Pp condition and express the dominant allele) |
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What are two other patterns of inheritance? |
1. Incomplete dominance 2. Codominance |
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Incomplete domincance |
A dominant allele cannot completely mask the expression of another. Ex. Red flowers mixed with white flowers will produce pink flowers |
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Codominance |
Two different alleles of a gene are both expressed in the organism Ex. Brown haired horse and white haired horse will produce a horse with both brown & white hairs on it |
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How many different alleles are expressed in human blood? |
3 different alleles, Ia Ib i |
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In human blood, which alleles are codominant to each other, and which allele is recessive? |
Ia and Ib are codominant to each other. i is recessive to both Ia and Ib |
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Most genes actually control more than one trait, meaning that a gene has multiple phenotypic effects, which is called _________ |
Pleiotropy |
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What is it called when the phenotypic expression of a gene at one locus alters the expression of a gene at a second locus? |
Epistasis |
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What is it called when a trait is not determined by a singe gene, and expressed a range of phenotypes? |
Polygenic Inheritance Examples - Human height, eye color, & skin color |
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Many characteristics result from a combination of heredity and ___________ |
Environment |
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Summary of sex-linked traits (Not necessarily answered, just helpful) |
Genes on the X chromosome show different patterns of inheritance because males only receive 1 X chromosome. Males only get 1 gene for each of the traits on the X chromosome. Males more frequently express these recessive traits than females, because they only have 1 X chromosome. Examples of conditions resulting from sex-linked (X-linked) genes: Red-green color blindness & Hemophilia |
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DNA is termed a ________ _______, and contains what 4 bases? |
nucleic acid ; Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) |
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Each DNA is composed of what 3 parts? |
1. Sugar (deoxyribose) 2. Phosphate group 3. Nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G) |
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The phosphate end of one nucleotide is joined by what type of bond? |
Covalent bond |
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The two strands of DNA are joined together by what type of bond? |
Hydrogen bond |
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The phosphate end of the DNA is termed the (1)________ end, and the sugar end of the DNA is termed the (2)________ end. a. 3' b. 5' |
(1). 5' (2). 3' |
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Is RNA single or double stranded? |
Single stranded |
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What sugar does the RNA have that DNA doesnt? |
Ribose (not deoxyribose) |
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What nitrogenous base does RNA have that differs from DNA? |
Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T) |
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The process that causes chromosomes to go from having a single DNA molecule to having two sister chromatids (two DNA molecules) is called ___ __________ |
DNA Replication |
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3 steps of DNA replication |
1. Two parental strands separate, catalyzed by DNA Helicase 2. Free complementary nucleotides attach by hydrogen bonds to the parental strands 3. Covalent bonds form between the nucleotides on the new strands, catalyzed by DNA Polymerase |
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Replication that results in DNA molecules that consist of one "old" strand and one "new" strand is called _________ ___________ |
Semiconservative replication |
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What enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two DNA strands to separate them? |
DNA helicase |
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What enzyme cuts and rejoins the DNA downstream of the replication fork, relieving the tension created as DNA unwinds? |
Topoisomerase |
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What enzyme synthesizes a short RNA segment that serves as a primer for DNA synthesis? |
Primase |
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The ___________ of DNA is synthesized continously, while the other DNA strand called the ____________ in synthesized discontinously? |
Leading Strand Lagging Strand |
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The lagging strand is synthesized as short fragments called |
Okazaki fragments |
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What is the ability to remove incorrectly added nucleotides from DNA called? (Used by Polymerase) |
Exonuclease activity |
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An organisms ________ (it's genetic makeup) is the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA |
Genotype |
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Transcription occurs in the ________ of a cell |
Nucleus |
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Internal non-coding regions are called ________ |
Introns |
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Internal coding regions are called _______ |
exons |
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Translation involves what 3 things? |
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) 3. Ribosomes |
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A ________ is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA |
Mutation |
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What are 2 types of mutations? |
1. Base Substitutions 2. Insertions & Deletions |
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Base substitution |
Replacement of one nucleotide by another, some have no effect, some have dramatic effects referred to as Missense mutations |
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Insertions & deletions |
When an extra nucleotide is inserted or deleted in a sequence |
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Undifferentiated cells that exist early in embryonic development are called |
Embryonic Stem cells |
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As development continues in the early stages of embryonic development, they __________ |
Differentiate |
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Differentiation |
The type of cell that a stem cell will become is set and cannot be changed |
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The primary regulatory mechanism in eukaryotes is the regulation of ____________ |
Transcription |
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Transcription must be turned on by an _________ ________ when the gene product is needed |
Activator protein |
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In our bodies, cells can receive messages from other parts of the body that can turn on or turn off the expression of certain genes, which is called ____ ____________ |
cell signaling |
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The first mammal cloned was in the year _______ and the animal was a ________ |
1997; sheep |
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Animal cloning |
The nucleus from an egg cell is removed and replaced by the nucleus from an adult cell, and is called nuclear replacement |
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What is the benefit of an embryonic stem cell and why is it advantageous for scientists to harvest them? |
Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated, meaning they can induce the stem cells to produce any specific type of cell that could be used for the repair of injured or diseased tissue |
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Cancer-causing viruses carry specific genes called _________. Cells can also acquire these by a mutation to one of their own genes |
Oncogenes |
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Genes that inhibit cell division to keep rates at the proper level that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth are called _______ _________ |
Tumor-supressor (Genes) |
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Cancer is always a genetic disease because it always results from changes in DNA, which is why it is termed ________ _________ |
"Inherited" cancer |