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178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
plant cirulatory tissues
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xylem, phloem, stomata
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sstomata
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openings in leaves surrounded by guard cells that can open/close so water can leave (bad!) and carbon dioxide can get to the chloroplasts to make sugars
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phloem
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(going down)
i. Remain alive ii. Transport sugar and water from leaves roots |
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xylem
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(giong up)
Vessel elements and tracheids 1. Cells that die when mature, form a tube 2. Transport water from roots leaves 3. Thickened cell walls |
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closed circulatory system
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a. Higher pressure in closed faster transport of oxygen
b. Closed: blood remains within a completely closed (unbroken) system of vessels and never comes in direct contact with cells (gets oxygen to cells by diffusion) |
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open circulatory system
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found in Mollusca and Arthropoda. Contains hemocoel (cavity/series of spaces between the organs) and hemolymph
(circulatory fluid inside hemocoel), which transports nutrients to all parts of the body and removes metabolic waste products |
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Types of photosynthesis
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CAM, C4, C3
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C3
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three reducing reactions. Most plants use C3 photosynthesis—stomata are open during the day. Uses enzyme called “rubisco.” More efficient than C4 and CAM plants under cool and moist conditions and under normal light because requires less “machinery” (fewer enzymes)
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C4
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Stomata also open during the day. uses the C3 pathway, but there is spatial separation of carbon dioxide movement into plant cells and fixation of carbon dioxide, which reduces water loss when stomata open. More efficient than C3 when CO2 is limited.
- Spatial separation of CO2 movement into plant cells and fixation of CO2 - More efficient than C3 when CO2 limited Mesophyll: • CO2 concentrations low • CO2 captured by PEP and carried to BSC Bundle Sheath Cell: • CO2 concentrated • CO2 enters Calvin Cycle * Use C4 over C3 when: photosynthesis is limited by CO2 - High light intensities - High temperature conditions - Dry environments |
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CAM
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- Temporal separation of CO2 movement into plant cells and fixation of CO2
- Excellent @ conserving water (cactus) Night: - Stomata open, CO2 fixed as acid and stored Day: - Stomata closed, CO2 released from acid and enters Calvin Cycle - Most common is deserts - Overall, not very efficient b/c energy to store CO2 in acid |
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Alternation of generations: Plant life history
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Sporophytes (diploid) and gametophytes (multicellular haploid individual). Spores grow into gametophyte; gametophytes fuse to become sporophyte
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Types of photosynthetic pigments
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a. Dinoflagellates: chlorophyll c
b. Brown algae: carotenoids, chlorophyll c c. Diatoms: carotenoids, chlorophyll c d. Red algae: chlorophyll a, phycobilins e. Green plants: chlorophyll b |
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Dinoflagellates: pigment?
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chlorophyll c
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Brown Algae: pigment?
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carotenoids, chlorophyll c
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Diatoms: pigment?
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carotenoids, chlorophyll c
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Red Algae: pigment?
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chlorophyll a, phycobilins
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Green plants: pigment?
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chlorophyll b
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Cell-mediated response
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an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but does involve natural killer cells. Attack infected host cells. Carried out by T cells. TH¬ cell binds to dendritic cell displaying antigen from pathogen activated TH cell. Activated TH¬ cell promotes immune response (undergoes multiplication to form clone of effector T cells; stimulates production of B cells; produces T memory cells; activates TC (cytotoxic) cells, which kill infected cells by lysis. This is more generalized than the humoral response.
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Humoral immunity
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refers to a separate system by which antibodies are made to protect the organism in the future if the antigen returns.
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Colorblindness
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People may be blind to red-green or yellow-blue (dichromats—lack one cone type) or lack cones so they don’t see color at all (monochromats).
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HIV
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virus tricks the vertebrate immune system into attacking Helper T cells. In the initial period right after the attack, plenty of antibodies are produced by B cells that rapidly reduce the concentration of HIV but do not eliminate it. Antibody concentration subsequently remains high. However, because there are few Helper T cells, HIV concentration slowly increases as cellular immunity because increasingly compromised.
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Plant defense
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a. Resin: in vacuoles, when eaten, vacuole bursts and lets out resin which kills insect.
b. Physically deter feeding with spines. c. Reduce digestibility: Tannins: Form hydrogen-bonds with proteins. Reduce protein digestibility. Slow development time of herbivore. Increase exposure of herbivore to bad conditions and enemies. d. Make poisons Toxins: highly variable in structure and function. Ex. alkaloids, cyanide, mustard gas, THC, etc. Interfere with specific metabolic processes. |
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Diversity of third line of defense:
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millions of T cell and B cell types to cope with diversity of invaders
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anther
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The plant structure associated with production of the male gametophyte
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Endosperm
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Tissue that provides nutrition to plant embryo that is analogous to yolk in animal eggs
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Bergmann's Rule
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Principle that states that the body size of individuals in cold climates tends to be larger than individuals of the same species in warmer climates
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Type of photosynthesis that is most common in deserts
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CAM
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Hemolymph
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The “blood” of insects that functions to detect invaders
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Helper T cells and Cytotoxic (Killer) T cells are....
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The two lymphocyte cell types that are involved in the cell-mediated process in vertebrates
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Plasmodesmata
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????
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Failures of the immune system
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Allergic reactions, autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiency diseases
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Epitope
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The part of the antigen that is recognized by the immune system
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Restriction enzyme (endonuclease)
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Site-specific nuclease that cleaves foreign unmethylated DNA in the cytoplasm
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Homo Erectus
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The first species of Homo to migrate out of Africa,
First Homo species to use fire for cooking |
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Neoteny
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Retention of juvenile characteristics in the adult
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Steroscopic Vision
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Synapomorphy of primates
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Modifications to these three groups of bones allowed for bipedal gait
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Skull, phalanges, pelvis
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Oxygen in this kind of circulatory system gets to cells by diffusion
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Closed circulatory system
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Blood
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A specialized fluid that delivers nutrients to cells and transports waste products from cells
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Hemocoel
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A cavity or series of spaces in between the organs in Mollusca and Arthropoda
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Systolic Blood Pressure
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The blood pressure component that refers to the point when ventricles are squeezing
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Hemocyanin
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An oxygen-carrying molecule that has copper as its central element and is found in spiders
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Fovea
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Center of the visual field
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Vomeronasal organ (VNO)
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Information from this organ is sent to a part of the olfactory bulb used for pheromonal communication
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Basilar membrane
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Membrane in the cochlea that contains hair cells that vibrate with the same frequency as the incoming sound
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Ca+2
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Ion that binds to regulatory proteins, initiating exocytosis of neurotransmitters
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Transduction
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The conversion of an electrical signal (action potential) into a chemical signal (neurotransmitter)
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Fick's law
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Flux= -(permeability of a membrane) (Area) ( concentration gradient)
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Lungs-
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respiration organ in most tetrapods, a few fish and snails
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Hemocoel-
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cavity of series of spaces btwn the organs in open circulatory systems
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How is hemolymph circulated in an open circulatory system?
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- dorsal heart- pulsatile organs
- body movements- normal body motions are usually enough to ciruclate |
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Hemolymph
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circulatory fluid in open circulatory systems
- does not carry oxygen, - carries nutrients, - removes metabolic waste - hydrostatic functions: - immune response |
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Hydrostatic Function in open circulatory systems
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- use fluid pressure to push out non kitenised hydroskelton
- use water pressure to extend out (dragon flies |
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Immune response by fat bodies in open circulatory(?)
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cells floating in hemocoel fat bodies are the first line of defense)
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How do insects breathe?
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- tracheal system: tupes com out forom outside body, branch and brach smaller and
smaller until they branch around every cell. - spiracles- big openings, close and shut- open tubing system�q |
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Limit of insect size
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Breathing: ability to get oxygen to entire body
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hemocyanin
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copper containing oxygen carrying proteins found in spiders
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Closed Circulatory Systems
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Blood:
- remains within a completely closed (unbroken) system of vessels - never comes in direct contact with the cells |
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how does oxygen get to the cells in closed circulatory system?
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diffusion from blood
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Advantages to closed circulatory
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faster transport of oxygen
- greater efficiency of blood flow - economy of blood volume - maintenance of sufficient blood pressure for a large body |
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2 chambers of heart:
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atrium and ventricle (left and right of each, right goes to lungs, left goes to body)
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Cardiac Cycle
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- 1st part artium are heavily musculated. in part b/c of all the muscles around it. it make
high pressure. - 2nd part is called low pressure, so heart is in between pushing. |
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systolic
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top number in blood pressure, when the heart muscles contract to pump blood, maximum arterial pressure
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diastolic
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minimum arterial pressure, during relaxation of heart between beats when ventricles fill with blood
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Blood is...
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- a specialized fluid
- delivers nutrients, oxygen etc. to cells - transports waste products from cells - composed of plasma and severeal kinds of cells |
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Types of blood cells
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- erythrocytes (red blood cells)
- leukocytes (white blood cells) - thrombocytes (platelets)r |
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Hemoglobin
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iron- containing oxygen-transport protein in the red blood cells of vertebrates
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3 organelles in plant cells
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chloroplasts, vacuoles, cell walls (cell inside rigid container)
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Vacuole Function in plant cells
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structural support (hydrostatic pressure), storage, waste disposale)
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3 types of plant cells
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parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
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Parenchyma
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plant cells where most of the metabolism occurs, thin-walled often with large vacuoles, in leaves these cells have
chloroplasts (stay alive throughout life of cell) |
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Collenchyma
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structural plant cell that dies, flexible (string in celery)
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Xylem
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vessel that transports water throughout plant,
going up - vessel elements and tracheids (enlongated cells in the xylem that serve in transport of water and mineral salts) - cells that die when mature, form a tube - transport water from roots to leaves - thickened cell walls |
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Phloem
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vessel that conducts nutrients through plant, going down
- phloem cells - remain alive - transport sugar and water from leaves to roots (bidirectional) |
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Sclerenchyma
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structural cells that die, rigid (wood)
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Plant circulation carried out by...
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water transport
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Stomata
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opening in plant leaves, can open and close, allow gas diffusion by transpiration
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Transpiration
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- water loss by plants through stomata
- use lots of water - transpiration creates negative tension (sucking in the xylem) - water molecules adhere to each other--> water pulled UP through the trees Functional significance of transpiration - replenishes water lost to evaporation - enables access to soil nutrients - cooling of plant tissuee body |
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Osmotic potential
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pulls water from soil through root hairs to xylem
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Cavitation and xylem wall thickness
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- hard wall because when you don't have enough water, the tubing system doesn't
collapse - amount of transpiration then you get loss of hydrostatic pressure, so schlorincema cells. - cavitation- the collapse of the cells because of lack of hydrostatic pressure - transpiration exceeds water supply to roots - only xylem vessel affected - xylem vessels remain intact b/c of rigid walls - xylem has to be hard, so the system can work again after water loss |
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Tree height limited by...
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water availability to top
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Photo-autotroph
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organism that generates organic compounds using CO2 and light
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Chloroplasts developed...
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endosymbiotic theory, developed from cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)�i
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Why care about plants?
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- food
- carbon fixation - oxygen productions - temperature modification - humidity - soil modification - major source of biodiversitylarge body |
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Photosynthesis (cyanobacteria, protists, higher plants)
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- phosphorylation- �light� reactions
- calvin- benson cycle- �dark� reactionss |
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C3 Photosynthesis
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vast majority of plants use this type
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epidermis
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outermost layer of cells of a leaf, water impermeable, have pores that open and close, veins that move sugars.
Adaptations: - stomata position (top & bottom, or just on the bottom-reduce amount of water loss) - leaf size (shade leaf vs. sun leaf) - leaf orientation (flat vs. angled) - avoidance (when the plant is out, usually only out during a couple months of the year) - stomata closure - when you stop water form going out, you stop CO2 from coming in |
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Photosynthetic pigments
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primary: chlorophylls
secondary: carotenoids and phycobilins |
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Plants and green algae have... ("chlorophyta")
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chlorophyll a and b
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These use chlorophyll c
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Dinoflagellates (brown algae), Diatoms, Rhotophyta-red algae
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alteration of generations
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????
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Animal life cycle
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gametes join to form zygote > cleavage (mitotic division of cells) forms blastula > gastrulation forms adult tissue
zygote>embryo>fetus>adult>produces gametes |
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Plant Adaptations to life on land
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- waxy cuticle
- surface pores (stomata) that enable gas exchange - retention of the embryo within the adult - greater parental investment (heteropsory) - protected repoructive structure (seed) - pollen |
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Integument
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seed coat
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Parts of a flower
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1. sepals
a. protect the bud until it opens 2. petals a. attract insects (just advertisement) 3. stamens a. make pollen b. anther(male)pollen grains grow into the anther i. when grants are fully grown the anther splits open c. pistil (female) i. stigma, style, carpel (ovary), ovules (eggs) 4. carpel(ovary) a. grow into fruits which contain the seeds |
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sepal
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flower part that protects the bud till it opens
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petals
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flower part that attracts insects
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stamens
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(male) make pollen at tip called anther (JUST THE TIP)
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carpel
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(female) grow into fruits which contain the seeds (ovary)
Pistil: stigma, style, carpel, ovules (egg) |
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Pollination and fertilization
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Pollen transferred from stamen to stigma(top of pistil), Pollen usually contains two nuclei at the time of dispersal. One of these nuclei divides to form two male gametes by the time the pollen tube reaches the ovary. The pollen tubes carry the male gametes to the egg cells in the ovules where fertilization occurs. At egg, tube bursts and releases two sperm cells
One unites with egg cell One unites with central cell to produce the endosperm |
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Parts of the seed
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seed coat, endosperm, embryo
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Adaptations for seed dispersal
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pollen, fruit (animals eat), seeds, ability of seeds and pollen to stay dormant for a long time
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Aneomophilous
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wind loving pollen. high production, far dispersal, lightweight, less efficient
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zoophilous
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animal loving pollen. low production, poor dispersal, larger, sticky
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ballistic dispersal
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shooting seeds
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strategies to avoid self pollination
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1) Timing: Male and female structures mature at different times
2) Morphological: structure of male and female organs prevents self-pollination (imperfect flower) 3) Biochemical: chemical on surface of pollen and stigma/style that prevent pollen tube germination on the same flower (incompatible)… if too related, female just doesn’t feed pollen tube. |
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Homeostasis
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enables an organism to live in many habitats (includes blood sugar, blood pH, blood pressure, body temperature)
How maintained? Regulation- regulate own temp Conformation - operate at temp of environment |
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Stages to maintaining homeostasis
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detection > counteraction
Receptor - receives stimuli (detection) Integrator - processes the information from the stimuli (regulatory center) Effector - carries out a response to stimuli (counteraction) |
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Mammaliam thermal regulation (2 types)
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cold: vasocontraction, shivering
hot: vasodilation, sweating |
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vasocontraction
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constricting of blood vessels so blood flow is limited to minimize heat loss
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vasodilation
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widening of blood vessels to reduce TPR
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Examples of Positive feedback loops
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Blood clotting
Lactation Contractions Suffocation Quorum sensing in bacteria (causes more inducer to be produced as population grows - glowing!) |
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Examples of negative feedback loops
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shivering
sweating |
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Heat transfer (4 types)
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- radiation: heat transfer between objects not in direct contact
- evaporation: removal of heat from the surface as water evaporates (always heat loss) - convection: transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a surface (wind) - conduction: direct transfer of heat between molecules of objects in direct contact |
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Poikilothermic
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cold blooded
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Thermoregulation (two types)
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behavioral or physiological (feedback loops)
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torpor
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period of dormancy to save energy where an organisms temperature drops. can be daily or long-term/hibernation
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endospore (2 meanings)
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- bacteria: inactive form of bacteria during envrionmental extremes
- plants: innermost wall of a spore or pollen grain |
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spore
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a small usually single-celled asexual reproductive body produced by many nonflowering plants and fungi and some bacteria and protozoans and that are capable of developing into a new individual without sexual fusion
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Methods of behavioral Thermoregulation
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- migration:animals moving great distances to avoid cold, and find more food
- backing: adjust posture, animals bask to increase body temperature by exposing more surface area to the sun |
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Methods of physiological thermoregulation
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- countercurrent exchange: minimize heat loss by running vein and arteries right next to
each other -shivering, sweating, panting, vasocontraction, vasodilation |
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homeothermic
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warm blooded
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ectothermic
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do not generate heat internally
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endothermic
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do generate heat internally
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Temperature responses over 3 time scales:
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acute, minutes
chronic, hours/days evolutionary, geological time |
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eurythermal
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can function over wide range of temps (eg. goldfish)ts)
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stenothermal
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only survive in anarrow tem range (eg arctic fish)h)ts)
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freeze avoidant
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migration, hibernation, staying warm
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freeze tolerant
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extracellular freezing, up to 70% body water frozen
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Plant defenses
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physical spines
toxins Chemical defense Tannins (general chemical defense)- many variants § Form hydrogen bonds with proteins § Reduce protein digestibility § Slows development time of herbivore § Increase exposure of herbivores to adverse conditions and enemies § Attach to proteins + reduce how fast can digest proteins à little nutrient absorbed by thing eating it § Cyanide, mustard gas, and other specific chemical defenses – interfere with metabolic processes |
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Induced plant defenses
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Apoptosis- programmed cell death
Brown spots- A hypersensitive response against a virulent pathogen- Seals off the infection and kills both pathogen and host cells - When being attacked send out salicylic acid signal to up their defense Recruiting parasitoids- wasps help w/ things eating leaves also below ground (nematodes) |
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Bacteria and Phages
Immune Response |
Bacteria & phages
Endonucleases, etc. and self recognitionBacterial nucleasesPeriplasmic nucleases- non-specific, clip DNA of virus, degrade foreign nucleic acids in the periplasmRestriction enzymes- site specific; cleave unmethylated DNA in cytoplasmNuclease- type toxins: degrade nucleic acid in foreign cells, eliminating competitorSelf recognition: DNA methylation of own DNA, protection from endonucleases |
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Gene-for-gene interactions and virulence-
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Pathogen is avirulent if: pathogen has specific Aur gene and pathogen has specific R allele- Matching à binding of Aur ligand and R receptor- Virulent: plant becomes diseased if no match between pathogen Aur gene and plant R allele
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Innate immunity
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Coded by a gene
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Aquired immunity
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Recognize antigens from immunological memory
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Phagocytosis
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injest whole cell
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Encapsulation
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surround and kill invadors
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Humoral Response
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only activated when attacked
Cells secrete antimicrobial peptides Melanization: enzymatic cascadeAntimicrobial peptides Hemolymph (blood): detection of invadors Turns on genes not active previous to attack Cytoplasm: signal transduction Nucleus: activate genes for antimicrobial peptides Oxidative species.... |
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Cellular response
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innate, just floating around Phagocytosis: Injest whole cell Encapsulation: Surround and kill invadors
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First Line of defense
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External: skin, mucous, secretion, hairs
goal: prevent access |
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Second line of defense
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Internal: phagocytic, antimicrobial, inflammatory, natural killer
goal: recognize and destroy |
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Third line of defense
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Humoral or cell-mediated
Specific defense mechanisms: 1. Specificity each Tcell and antibody (produced by B cells) recognizes a specific antigenic determinant 2. Diversity millions of Tcell and Bcell types, to cope with diversity of invaders 3. Immunological memory cellular remembrance of past infections poised for next infection 4. Non-self from self recognition: don’t attack yourself (autoimmune disease) |
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Cell-mediated immunity
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????or cell mediated
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Humoral immunity
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????
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Endocytosis
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cell's plasma membrane fold in to engulf something
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antigen
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a substance that triggers an immune response in the body
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antibody
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protein produced by b-cell/lymphocyte that binds to antigens and neutralizes them. marks them for destruction by macrophages.
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epitope
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site on surface of an antigen where antibodies attach to
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lymphocyte
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Any of various white blood cells, including B cells and T cells, that function in the body's immune system by recognizing and deactivating specific foreign substances called antigens. B cells act by stimulating the production of antibodies. T cells contain receptors on their cell surfaces that are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens. Lymphocytes are found in the lymph nodes and spleen and circulate continuously in the blood and lymph.
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B cell
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lymphocyte involved in humoral response. Upon recognizing an antigenic determinant, a B cell develops into a plasma cell which secretes an antibodydies) that inactivate the antigens
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Helper T cell
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recognizes antigens and participates in the activation of B cells and other T cells; targets of the HIV-I virus;
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Cytotoxic T cell
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A large differentiated T cell that functions in cell-mediated immunity by attacking and lysing target cells that have specific surface antigens
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Dendritic Cells
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roams body looking for invadors, A highly specialized white blood cell found in the skin, mucosa, and lymphoid tissues that initiates a primary immune response by activating lymphocytes and secreting cytokines.
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memory cells
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long-lived lymphocyte produced by exposure to antigen. Able to mount a rapid response to subsequent exposures to specific antigen
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clonal selection
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exposure to antigen result in the activation of selected T or B-cell clones resulting in an immune response
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Primary immune response
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1st response of immune system to antigen, involving recognition by lymphocytes and the production of effector cells and memory cells
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Secondary immune response
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rapid/intense response to a subsequent exposure to antigen, initiated by memory cells
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How does AIDS induce an autoimmune response?
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????
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Eye parts
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- White are: sclera (for human communication)- Pupil: small opening through which light enters- Iris: contracts, controls amount of light in cornea- Lens: focuses light onto retina- Retina: lining of eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light- Fovea: center (sharp central vision), contains only cones
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Eye layers
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-Photoreceptor
-Bipolar cell layers - Ganglion Cell |
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Ganglion Cell
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- light must travel through layers of neurons + blood vessels before it gets to rods + cones
- preprocessing of info prior to signals leaving eye |
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Photoreceptors
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Rods + cones- Contain photosensitive pigment- All rods single pigment, cones 3 pigment areas (blue, green, red)
Increased sensitivity in dark and visa versa |
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Blind Spot
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where optic nerve leaves eye
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Photopigment:
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- Not evenly distributed- Mainly reds(64%), very few blues (4%)- Insensitive to short wavelengths,- High sensitivity to long wavelengths- Center of retina has no blue
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Ocelli
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insect: simple eye doesn’t form image, detects horizon, changes in light intensity
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Stemmata
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insect: simple eye used for vision of larvae
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Compound eye
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-Two per insect
-Ommatidia are facets that make up eye: connected to nervous system - Perception of form: Mosaic theory (many small eyes) - Insects (UV) short wavelengths |
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Sensilla
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insect hearing: (hair)- mechano receptor that respond during deformation w/ a charge from nerve cell to brain
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Chemoreception
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insect taste: - open tip dendrite, bottom of feet + mouth, ovipositor + antennae
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olfaction
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sense of smell for insects and vertabrates (vomeronasal organ, glomuleri)
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hearing
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vertabrates:
inner, middle, outer ear Bones: cochlea, basilar membrane, hair cell |
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balance
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associated with cochlea
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rods
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very sensitive to light, provide night vision
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cones
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sensitive to color and light, found in fovea, work best in light
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cochlea
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part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates, causes vibration of
basilar membranets)r |
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basilar membrane
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membrane in the cochlea which contains receptor cells,
called hair cells |
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cell mediated immunity
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Cell mediated immunity is the type of response that can allow cells of our immune system (T cells) to recognize which cells in our bodies are virally infected. The T cells seek out these cells, and destroy them, thereby killing the virus contained within them.
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humoral immunity
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This refers to a response by certain cells of the immune system (B cells) which have the ability to make what are called antibodies. Antibodies are proteins which float around in the blood and have a particular ability to bind to a foreign protein. Depending on the features of this foreign protein, antibody binding to it will have numerous possible effects.
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