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101 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
_______amino acids tend to be found folded inside a protein, whereas _______ amino acids interact with water on the outside of the protein. |
hydrophobic; hydrophillic |
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what determines a protein's function?
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-sequence of amino acids -the 3-dimensional shape of the folded protein -the location of its gene on the chromosome |
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what determines how protein's fold? |
a. the interaction of the shared core structure of all the amino acids in the protein b. the interaction of the side chains of each individual amino acid c. the interaction of the amino acids with water in the proteins environment |
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describe amino acid side chains |
They provide unique functions to a folded protein They allow for the correct folding of proteins. |
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Heating a protein can cause it to denature, or unfold. What do you think would happen to the function of a protein in a denatured state? |
The protein would not be functional because the three-dimensional shape dictates protein's function. |
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What controls the timing of gene expression? |
the regulatory sequence for a gene |
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_______ on mRNA interact with _______ on tRNA to allow the _______ to connect amino acids in the correct order during translation. |
Codons; anticodons; ribosome |
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State two ways in which a person can be deficient in antithrombin activity. |
a mutation in the regulatory region of a gene a mutation in the coding region of a gene |
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Which of the following parts of translation will be disrupted by a mutation in the coding region of a gene? |
the codon of the mRNA |
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how do the redundant properties of the genetic code protect humans from some mutations? |
Some mutations will not change the amino acid coded by the mRNA codon. |
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Why is recombinant protein production in the milk of transgenic animals an efficient strategy? |
a. because milk is secreted, so the protein can be obtained non invasively b. because milk is produced in relatively large quantities c. because mammary glands naturally secrete large quantities of proteins into milk d. because milk is easier to obtain than other secretions (e.g., urine, sweat, and saliva) |
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In an antithrombin-producing transgenic goat, |
the antithrombin gene construct is present in every cell and expressed only in mammary cells. |
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How did scientists alter the gene for antithrombin so that it could be isolated from milk? |
They attached the regulatory sequence of the goat antithrombin gene to the human coding sequence of antithrombin. |
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Melanin is a pigment expressed in skin cells; melanin gives skin its color. If you wanted to express a different gene in skin cells, which part of the melanin gene would you use and why? |
The melanin regulatory region would allow for the specific expression of a different gene in the skin. |
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Why are biotechnology companies eager to design genetically modified organisms to express therapeutic proteins, particularly ones that would otherwise have to be isolated from blood products (e.g., human antithrombin) or animal organs (e.g., insulin, originally isolated from pig pancreas)? |
Biotechnology companies want to produce therapeutic proteins in the most cost-effective way. There are safety concerns when using proteins from different species or isolating proteins from humans. It is difficult to collect enough of some low-abundance proteins. |
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What is a genetically modified organism? |
any modified organism that produces a product it does not normally make |
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Type 1 diabetes results from a loss of insulin production from the pancreas. People with diabetes take recombinant human insulin expressed in bacteria. How would you cure the disease instead of treating it? |
Replacing the defective insulin gene in a patient through gene therapy would allow for a cure. |
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simple diffusion? |
movement of small ions from high to low through the membrane they require NOTHING (no ion channels, no energy) ex: carbon dioxide, oxygen (so small fatty acid tails don't know they're there) |
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Active transport? |
protein channels that REQUIRE energy to allow substances through them. Normally they need the energy to pump ions from area of low concentration to high concentration. (ex: walking up slide requires more energy then going down) |
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the general path of how a protein is made and processed out of the cell |
ribosomes make it Rough ER processes it golgi packages it and then sends it away |
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hypothesis |
a testable theory that could be right or wrong |
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the chemical properties of water |
partially positive hydrogen partially negative oxygen |
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what evidence to prove these organelles under went endosymbiosis |
similarity between bacteria & the chloroplasts & mitochondria of eukaryotes -size -inner membrane systems, enzymes, electron transport systems -reproduction resembles binary fission -circular DNA |
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name 3 organelles of a plant cell and function
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plant wall: structure and protection chloroplast: site of photosynthesis vacuole: storage |
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chromosome |
a single, large molecule found in the nucleus of all cells ~ i think |
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When is PCR a useful technique? |
when limited sample of DNA |
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An individual's STR may vary from the same STR of another individual by: |
the number of times a specific sequence is reppeated |
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what does gel electrophoresis do |
it analyzes DNA samples (separates DNA fragments by size) |
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hypertonic hypotonic isotonic what are they? what do they do to the cell? |
hyper-lots of solute; water goes out; cell shrinks hypo-low solute; water goes in; cell bursts (plants will be turgid) iso-equal solute; no net movement of water; nothing happens to the cell |
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summarize theory of endosymbiosis using specific organelles as examples |
there is compelling evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once primitive bacterial cells similarity between bacteria & the chloroplasts & mitochondria of eukaryotes |
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what can pass through the cell with greater ease, oxygen or glucose? |
oxygen bc it doesn't have a charge. glucose has lots of charges that the fatty acids don't like |
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name 3 organelles of a animal cell and describe their function |
mitochondria: provides energy endoplasmic reticulum: where proteins are made and packaged nucleus: where hereditary info stored |
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what are carbohydrates? what are their monomers and polymers? |
sugar monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide |
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what organelle does photosynthesis occur in? what subunits within that organelle are responsible for capturing light and CO2? |
chloroplasts -Thylakoids ---embedded in stroma ---disk-shaped membranous sacs ---this is where light is captured stroma -fluid inside chloroplast ---this is where CO2 is captured and processed sugar produced |
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what are short tandem repeats and how can we use them to identify an individual? |
sections of a chromosome in which DNA sequences are repeated -STRs are in the same places along chromosomes -exact length of STR varies from person to person using PCR methods to screen: diff individuals have diff DNA banding patterns |
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what is an ideal pH? how does it effect the activity of the enzyme |
pH where an enzyme is most active can affect the binding of an enzyme with its substrate Pepsins ideal pH: 2 |
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what happens when there isn't enough oxygen available for cellular respiration? what builds up in our muscles? what other products can be generated? |
Fermentation lactic acid alcohol |
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proto-oncogenes what do normal ones do? when they are mutated? |
-they promote cell division and cell differentiation, in response to appropriate signals -mutated: can become permanently turned on, or activated stimulating cells to divide all the time (oncogenes-genes that cause cancer) ex: Her2 (breast cancer) |
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tumor suppressor genes what do normal ones do? when they are mutated? |
normally pause cell division, repair damaged DNA, and initiate apoptosis -cause cancer when inactivated by mutation ex: BRCA 1 & 2 (code for proteins that help the cell progress normally through cell cycle and respond to DNA damage |
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interphase |
preporatory stage of cell cycle; prepares for cell division 3 subphases: G1, S, G2 |
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Sub Phases of Interphase |
G1: cell grows larger; begins to produce more cytoplasm and organelles S: DNA replicates and chromosomes duplicated G2: when cell ready to enter cell division phases |
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Mitosis |
the segregation and separation of duplicated chromosomes during cell division (chromosomes are evenly divided between two daughter cells) 4 phases (PMAT) |
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Prophase |
replicated chromosomes begin to coil up
the nuclear membrane begins to disassemble microtubule fibers begin to form the mitotic spindle |
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Metaphase |
microtubule spindle fibers from opposite ends of the cell attach to the sister chromatids of each chromosome
replicated chromosomes become aligned along the middle of the cell (mitotic spindle forms) |
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Anaphase
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microtubules shorten
sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of cell |
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Telophase& cytokinesis
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Identical sets of chromosomes reach each pole
microtubule spindle fibers disassemble nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, forming the daughter cell nuclei (Cytokinesis-cytoplasm and nuclei divide into 2 daughter cells) |
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epidemiology
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the study of patterns of disease in populations, including risk factors |
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science |
the process of using observations and experiments to draw conclusions based on evidence |
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covalent bond |
sharing of pair of electrons between two atoms this forms molecules |
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organic molecules |
backbone of interconnected carbon atoms and at least one carbon attached to the hydrogen atom ex of simple organic molecule: glucose (C6 H12 O6) |
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inorganic molecules |
lack a carbon based backbone and C-H bond ex: CO2 |
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4 types of organic molecules that make up living things: |
carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acids (macromolecules) |
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cell |
basic structural unit of living organisms |
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cohesion vs adhesion |
cohesion: water molecules sticking to water molecules through hydrogen bonding adhesion: water molecules sticking to other surfaces through hydrogen bonding |
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ionic bond |
a strong electrical attraction between oppositely charged ions formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another (ion-electrically charged atom) |
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carrier |
An individual who is heterozygous for a particular gene of interest, and therefore can pass on the recessive allele without showing any of its effects. |
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independent assortment |
The principle that alleles of different genes are distributed independently of one another during meiosis. |
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embryo |
An early stage of development reached when a zygote undergoes cell division to form a multicellular structure. |
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recombination |
An event in meiosis during which maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments. |
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amniocentesis |
A procedure that removes fluid surrounding the fetus to obtain and analyze fetal cells to diagnose genetic disorders. |
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multifactorial inheritance |
An interaction between genes and the environment that contributes to a phenotype or trait. |
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autosomes |
Paired chromosomes present in both males and females; all chromosomes except the X and Y chromosomes. |
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nondisjunction |
The failure of chromosomes to separate accurately during cell division; nondisjunction in meiosis leads to aneuploid gametes. |
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continuous variation |
Variation in a population showing an unbroken range of phenotypes rather than discrete categories. |
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pedigree |
A visual representation of the occurrence of phenotypes across generations. |
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incomplete dominance |
A form of inheritance in which heterozygotes have a phenotype that is intermediate between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive. (pink rose) |
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ANEUPLOIDY |
An abnormal number of one or more chromosomes (either extra or missing copies). |
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co-dominance |
A form of inheritance in which both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype. (fur-black and brown) |
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gonads |
sex organs |
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polygenic traits |
A trait whose phenotype is determined by the interaction among alleles of more than one gene. |
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aerobic respiration |
A series of reactions that occurs in the presence of oxygen and converts energy stored in foodinto ATP. |
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3 stages of aerobic respiration |
Glycolysis Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport |
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Glycolysis |
breaks down food molecules into smaller molecules in cytoplasm then these molecules enter mitochondria converts some energy into a small # of ATP molecules |
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Citric Acid Cycle |
series of reactions-high energy electrons stripped from the bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms carried to inner membrane of mitochondria by NADH molecules during this, small amount of ATP is made |
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Electron Transport |
as high energy electrons are passed from NADH down a chain of molecules in mitochondrial membrane, they power a series of reactions that channel energy into the formation of many ATP molecules (takes place in mitochondria) |
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fermentation |
takes place in absence of oxygen and in the cytoplasm converts some of the energy stored in food into ATP -produces far less than aerobic respiration |
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anticodon |
The part of a tRNA molecule that binds to a complementary mRNA codon. |
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regulatory sequence |
determine when, where, and how much protein a gene makes (on/off switch) |
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ribosome |
A complex of RNA and proteins that carries out protein synthesis in all cells. |
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coding sequence |
The part of a gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein. Coding sequences determine the identity, shape, and function of proteins. (identity) -specify order(sequence) of amino acids |
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gene |
the sequence of DNA that contains the info to make at least one protein |
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genetic code |
The set of rules relating particular mRNA codons to particular amino acids. |
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genetically modified organism (GMO) |
An organism that has been genetically altered by humans. |
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RNA Polymerase |
The enzyme that carries out transcription. RNA polymerase copies a strand of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. |
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Transcription |
The first stage of gene expression, during which cells produce molecules of messenger RNA (mRNA) from the instructions encoded within genes in DNA. occurs in nucleus (eukary) and cytoplasm (prokary) |
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transfer RNA (tRNA) |
A type of RNA that transports amino acids to the ribosome during translation. |
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translation |
The second stage of gene expression, during which mRNA sequences are used to assemble the corresponding amino acids to make a protein. occurs on ribosomes (in cytoplasm and rough ER) |
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messenger RNA (mRNA) |
carries DNA gene info to ribosome |
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) |
component of ribosome (makes protein) -part of the structure |
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gene expression |
the process of using DNA instructions to make proteins |
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recombinant gene |
genetically engineered gene |
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gene therapy |
a treatment that aims to cure human disease by replacing defective genes with functional ones |
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cystic fibrosis |
autosomal genetic disease -caused by single cell mutation -change in nucleotide sequence of DNA -affects lungs, pancreas, small intestines -person has it: must have inherited allele from both mom and dad -caused by recessive allele |
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transport proteins |
move large or hydrophilic molecules across cell membrane |
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recombination (crossing over) |
event in meiosis which maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and physically exchange DNA segments |
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Huntington's disease |
autosomal dominant disorder -if single huntington's allele is inherited, the individual will have the disease |
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Chaiasma |
The junction between homologouschromosomes where recombination occurs. |
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Mitosis |
process that occurs within almost all cells within the body helps to continue the replication and proliferation of cells What happens?- DNA is doubled in size, categorized in its respective areas, and cell is divided. allows for creation of daughter cells with same amount of DNA as parent cell |
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Meiosis |
-occurs only in gametes doubles DNA, splits chromosomes randomly into different daughter cells, ends with two new cells with different combo of mother or daughter chromosomes. next part: DNA split off again w/o any additional replication --ends with 8 cells w/ only have the desired DNA |
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examples of Aneuploidy |
Downs Syndrome (extra on 21) Turner Syndrome (XO) Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) XYY syndrome |
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reproduction of eukaryotic cells ischaracterized by three steps |
1. replication of DNA within the nucleus 2. packagingand segregation of the replicated DNA into two new nuclei (nucleardivision) 3. division ofthe cytoplasm (cytokinesis) |