Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
levels of organization of biology (5, organism to biosphere)
|
organism < population < community < ecosystem < biosphere
|
|
|
the three universal characteristics of living organisms
|
1) energy transformation (life does reactions)
light, organic, inorganic compounds 2) reproduction (life propogates) asexual (no genetic diff) and sexual (gametes) 3) shows homeostasis (life adapts to environments, etc) |
|
|
evolution (what is it, how can we track it)
|
- genetic and resulting phenotypic change in populations of orgs from one generation to the next
- track it through fossil record, morphological comparisons, development, molecular analysis, and behaviour |
|
|
why is choking common (evolutionary perspective) in humans?
|
LUNGFISH
- developed resp tracts from their mouths, cause it was a convenient opening to take in |
|
|
origin of life on earth (what are the 2 theories)
|
- extraterrestrial
- chemical evolution on earth *even extraterrestetrial life had to be built by chem evolution |
|
|
miller & urey experiment
|
- tried to mimic early earth's atmosphere
- organic molecules formed. how? -light/EM energy source (lightning) |
|
|
there were ________ origins of life
|
1, cuase everything is so similar
|
|
|
over time, O2 has gone ______ (up/down) in earth
|
up. there was no O2 originally, it was waste product when CO2 was used to make organic molecules
|
|
|
who were the first photosynthetic organisms?
|
cyanobacteria
|
|
|
precambrian era (2 parts)
|
-life in oceans only
- mainly unicellular/prokaryotic late precambrian - eukaryortes evolved. some soft bodied animals |
|
|
stromatolites
|
layered cyanobacterial concretions
|
|
|
ediacaran animals
|
soft bodied animals bo
|
|
|
cambrian explosion
|
beggining of paleozoic era. rapid diversification of life
|
|
|
what is and why did ordivician end?
|
- first part of paleozoic era, radiation of marine life
- ended cause of sea level and ocean temp drop. |
|
|
silurian
|
- mid paleozoic
- colonization of land (by plants & arthropods) - swimming, jawless fishes |
|
|
devonian
|
- age of fishes
- first seed plants on land - spiders and insects |
|
|
carboniferous
|
- age of amphibians/coal
- land was dominated by swamp forses (ferns and horse trails) - flight (in insects) - amniotic egg evolves (shelled egg) |
|
|
how did organisms begin to reproduce on land?
|
the amniotic egg
|
|
|
permian
|
-reptiles diversify
- largest mass extinction in history at the end (cause pangea formed) -end of paleozoic |
|
|
mesozoic (3 types)
|
- triassic (first dinsaurs, mammals)
- jurassic (large dinosaurs, flying reptiles, flowering plants) - cretaceous (mammals radiate) |
|
|
cretaceous mass extinction
|
- caused by meteorite
- all large animals died |
|
|
how many mass extincts in earth? what are they linked with?
|
drops in sea level,
|
|
|
cenozoic
|
- mammals and birds take off
-teritiary era - quartinary era (humans) |
|
|
plants living in water (energy, reprod, support, growth)
|
- ENERGY: stay hydrated,
- REPROD: large number of gametes, released into water - SUPPORT: water provides support for physical structure - SIZE: photosynthesis and size is limited |
|
|
plants living on land (energy, reprod, support, growth)
|
- ENERGY: need organs for absorbing water and minerals (roots)
- water conservation through stomata - water transported through xylem and phloem REPROD: gametes are protected, and seed habit (resists dehydration) SUPPORT: cell wall thickening SIZE: larger cause of diploid genome |
|
|
order of adaptations for plants to flourish on land (9)
|
1) protected embryos
2) stomata 3) green sporophyte 4) basic leaves 5) vascular elements (distribution) 6) complex leaves 7) seeds 8) naked seeded plants 9) flowering plants |
|
|
gametophyte vs. sporophyte
|
gametophytes are haploid
vs. sporophytes are diploid |
|
|
what is alternation of generations?
|
when the organism goes through both gametophyte and sporophyte forms
|
|
|
chara
|
- cells found in green algae, up to 5cm long
|
|
|
antherida vs. archegonia
|
produce sperm vs. produce eggs
|
|
|
what are green algae?
|
- anscestors of plants
- have photosynth with chloro a and b, - cellulose cell walls - haploid dominant |
|
|
isogamy vs. heterogamy
|
both gametes look similar
Ex: chlamydomanas heterogamy - gametes are different (egg and sperm) |
|
|
matrotrophic
|
embryo is supplied by nutrition from the mother
|
|
|
where did stomata first appear?
|
in mosses
|
|
|
homospory vs. heterospory
|
homospory
- produce a single type of gametophyte with both male and female organs heterospory -first appeared in vascular plants - megaspore (female) and microspore (male) |
|
|
microphylls (what, example)
|
simple leaves or leaf like structure , one vascular projection
ex: club moss |
|
|
megaphylls
|
large leaves with many vascular veins
|
|
|
xylum & pholem
|
transport tissues.
xylum: water, minerals phoelm: organic compounds |
|
|
gymnosperm vs. angiosperm
|
gymnosperm
"naked seed" plants -sperm NOT motile - some of the tallest trees - conifers angiosperm - flowers (mature sporophytes) - xylem vessels - sperms are not motile |
|
|
what are tracheids, vessels, seive tubes and companion cells?
|
higher plant vasculature
|
|
|
how alternation of generations has evolved
|
1) gametophyte large, nourishes small sporophyte (moss)
2) sporophyte much larger, gametophyte small, live independently (ferns) 3) sporophyte is predominant and nourishes hidden gametophyte (flowering plants) |
|
|
dicot vs. monocot
|
single cotylodon vs. two cotyledons
|
|
|
tap root vs. fibrous root
|
tap root
- in eudicots, strong root system. found in trees fibrous root - in monocots, single and weak root system. large surface area - ex: corn, barley |
|
|
petiole vs. sheath
|
structres at the base of a leaf
- petioles are in eudicots - monocots only have sheaths |
|
|
phytomere
|
is the modular structure of a stem.
- includes: an internode - leaf at the upper end of internode - axillary bud (embyonic) in the axil of the leaf |
|
|
reticulate vs. parallel
|
leaf venation.
- monocots have a parallel venation - eudicots have a reticulate venation |
|
|
cotyldons
|
- come up two of them in dicot plants.
|
|
|
primary growth vs. 2ndary root
|
lengthenin vs. thickening of plant
- not much 2ndary growth in monocot plants because of a lack of cambian |
|
|
meristem, what is it
|
the part of the place that is a permenant embryonic region
- growth happens from here |
|
|
apical meristem
|
shoot apical meristems and root apical meristem
- increases height |
|
|
lateral meristem
|
ex: cambium
- increases diameter of plant - indeterminate/permanent |
|
|
temporary meristems
|
- produce organs with finite size
- ones that have leaf/flower parts |
|
|
terminal bud
|
- top of plant, contains a shoot apical meristem
|
|
|
leaflets
|
- DONT have axillary embryonic regions (as opposed to leaves)
- are part of a compound leaf |
|
|
stipules, tendrils, spines
|
- the part that attaches the compound leaves to the stem.
- tendrils help a plant climb as soon as it touches a new surface it grows around it |
|
|
phyllotaxy
|
patterns of leaf arrangement.
|
|
|
vascular bundes in stems of monocots vs. eudicots
|
randomly arranges in monocots.
- arranged into a circle in periphery in eudicots |
|
|
cork cambium
|
another type of secondary growth. it is water repellent. protects against pathgens
- can sometimes split open (a lenticel) to allow oxygen in |
|
|
vascular bundes in roots of monocots vs. eudicots
|
- monocots have a regular arrangement
-eudicots have irregular arrangement |
|
|
why are leafs flat?
|
to maximize photosynthesis
|
|
|
palisade mesophyll cell
|
carry out photosynthesis
|
|
|
root cap
|
- covers the root apical meristem. is constantly being eroded away
|
|
|
root branches vs. stem branches
|
from deep layers of the centre root vs. from superficial layers of the center stem
|
|
|
quiescent centre
|
-
|
|
|
what are modifications of stems?
|
- can do photosynthesis (cacti)
- potatoes are stems (each eye can make a new plant) |
|
|
what are modifications of leafs?
|
- into pitchers, for carnivorous plants
_ completely upright in monocots |
|
|
trimerous vs. pentamerous
|
3 sepals/petals vs. 5 sepals/petals
monocot vs. dicot |
|
|
parts of stamen
|
filament, anther
|
|
|
parts of carpel
|
ovary, style (surrounds it), stigma (entry to ovary at top)
|
|
|
all flower parts are modified _______
|
leaves. ie. the seed chambers in fruits (carpels) are folded leaves.
|
|
|
diffusion
|
- movement of molcules due to their own internal thermal/kinetic energy
|
|
|
osmosis
|
diffusion across a selectively permeable membrane
|
|
|
bluk flow vs. osmosis
|
driven by pressure difference vs. driven by concentration
|
|
|
apoplastic vs. symplastic pathways
|
apoplastic
- never enters cells, only travels through cell walls symplastic - water goes through the cell |
|
|
casparian strips
|
- the "border point" for water, needs to enter celsl at this point caus eit is entering endodermis (interior)
|
|
|
transpiration
|
- plant losing water through the stomata
|
|
|
tension
|
pulls water from the veins into the leaves
|
|
|
plants throw ___% of water back into the atmosphere
|
99
|
|
|
plants are ______ producers
|
primary
|
|
|
how is hydrogen put onto carbon?
|
water is split, H is used for gradient, energized H are added to NADP+
|
|
|
source tissue vs. sink tissue
|
leaves (collecting organs) vs. roots (growing organs)
- leaves send sugar to phloem to roots - roots send water to xylem to leaves |
|
|
what is an essential element?
|
- needs to play a direct role in the life-cycle of the plant
- cant be replaced by another element - its lack/absence creates a specific deficient symptom |
|
|
essential minerals (macro vs. micro)
|
Macro: CaKMgNPSSi
Micro: Boron, chlorine, and all transition metals |
|
|
root hairs
|
- increase absorbtive area of roots
|
|
|
clay particles are ____ charged
|
- negatively, attract cations on surface.
- roots exchance H from carbonic acid of from plant itself to get the cations |
|
|
leaching
|
when soil is over irrigated, it pushes anions too deep for the roots
|
|
|
root nodules
|
- batceria that "fix" nitrogen are in these nodules
- they live symbiotically withj plants - root nodules actually attract them they releasing chemicals, then surround them. they start growing inside the plant |
|
|
ectotrophic mycorrihizal fungus vs. vesicular arbuscular mychorrhizal fungus
|
- symbiootic fungus with plant, outside of plant vs. inside plant
|
|
|
why are some plants carnivorous?
|
- in low soil-nitrogen environments, they need to get it from animals
|
|
|
cuscuta
|
a parasitic plant that steals nutrients from other plants
|
|
|
growth
|
irreversible QUANTITATIVE increase
|
|
|
development
|
QUALITATIVE changes in body structure or function. ie organogenesis, morphogenesis, aging
|
|
|
phytohormones
|
- regulate plant growth and development and activity at very low concentrations
|
|
|
gibberellins
|
- plant hormones that promote seed germination, stem growth, fruit development etc.
|
|
|
growth vs. time graph
|
- s shape
-lag phase -log phase -stationary phase |
|
|
trophic growth movements
|
- growth affected by environmental factors
-ie. light: phototrophic |
|
|
if you stimulate cells on the left, the plant will grow towards the _____
|
right (cause the left side gets longer, and it becomes convex)
|
|
|
apical dominance
|
- mediated by auxin
- the part of the plant that have auxin has apical dominance. |
|
|
shoot and root responses to gravity
|
- shoots grow awy from gravity, roots grow towards gravity
|
|
|
abscisic acid
|
- keeps seeds dormant
- it has to degrade or leech out before the seed will germinate |
|
|
light requirement for seed germination
|
- if the last pigment they are exposed to is far red, then they wont grow
- if the last pigment they are exposed to is red, then they will grow |
|
|
phytochrome
|
- a single pigment that can absorb two different wavelengths of life (through conformational change)
|
|
|
giberellin treatment can substitute for:
|
- light treatment
- chilling treatment |
|
|
asexual vs. sexual reproduction in angiosperms
|
asexual
- potato -each eye gives life to another potato sexual - flowering plants |
|
|
photoperiodism (3 categories)
|
plants flower depending on the length of day and night
Short day plant - (have a maximum for day length) long day plant - (have a minmum for day length) - day neutral plants (depend on how many leaves have budded) |
|
|
florigen
|
- a protein produced in leaves
- it signals to the plant how much time in the day is light/dark |
|
|
double fertilization in angiosperms
|
- generative cell makes 2 sperms:
- 1 ferrtilized the egg - 1 combined with two polar bodies to make endosperm (triploid). makes the fruit |
|
|
types of environmental stresses
|
1) biotic stress
2) abiotic stresses - temp, chemicals, oxidation, pressure (wind), drought, |
|
|
responses to env. stress
|
1) avoidance/resitance (fights stress)
2) tolerance (develop stress) 3) avoid stress |
|
|
pneumatophores
|
- when there is oxygen deficiency
- roots stick up out of the ground to get oxygen |
|
|
responses to insect stress
|
1) inhibits its own material form being digested by insects
2) send chemical signals for the predators of insects |
|
|
responses to cutting or grazing
|
- removes apical dominance, so more side branches come out of the bottom of the shoot.
|
|
|
diversity of life (3 parts)
|
- genetic variation
- species composition - function (ie. biochemical pathways, photosynthesis) |
|
|
species diversity
|
the number of species and
|
|
|
how many species are there around?
|
- 3-100 million eukaryotes
- unknown number of prokaryotes (10k identified) |
|
|
___% of species are extinct
|
99
|
|
|
main factors that control diversity
|
- area (doubling area increase 10-25% of species)
- climate (warm, wet areas have more species) |
|
|
arthropods
|
animals without bones. most diverse type of life
|
|
|
fish, birds, mammals reptiles/amph (order in terms of diversity)
|
fish > reptiles > birds > mammals
|
|
|
genetic diversity. who has the most?
|
prokaryotes. the measure of genetic difference (evolutary differences)
|
|
|
functional diversity. who has the most?
|
prokaryotes.
|
|
|
the oldest organisms on the planet
|
prokaryotes
|
|
|
major groups of prokaryotes
|
1) bacteria
2) archaea (closer related to eukaria than bacteria) |
|
|
archea defining factors
|
- distinctive lipids in cell membranes
- absence of peptidoglycan in cell wall - lipid monolayer |
|
|
bacterium structure
|
- capsule
- cell membrane + cell wall (HAS peptidoglycan) |
|
|
where do bacteria perform respiration/photosynthesis?
|
- the cell membrane is highly folded, done here
|
|
|
morphologies of bacteria (3)
|
-spheres=cocci
- rods = bacilli - helical = spirilli |
|
|
gram staining
|
gram+ : thick cell wall (darker after staining)
gram - : thin cell wall between two membranes |
|
|
antibiotics are usually ineffective against gram ___ bacteria
|
negative
|
|
|
repoduction in bacteria
|
- asexual reproduction: binary fission (rapid)
|
|
|
plasmids
|
- genes that are easil transferred, not part of chromosones by conjugation
|
|
|
conjugation vs. transformation vs. transduction
|
genetic material.
sharing vs. finding outside stuff vs. virally transported |
|
|
homeostasis in bacteria
|
- form endospores: strongly protect bacteria from adverse conditions
- biofilms: for example, plaque. |
|
|
chemotaxis
|
movement to or from chemical signals
|
|
|
how do bacteria get around?
|
- flagella (thinner and more than in euk)
- glide roll, use gas inside cell |
|
|
obilgate anaerobes vs. facultative anaerobes vs. aerotolerant anaerobes
|
cant survive with oxygen in air. use oxygen if its around. can survive with oxygen, but dont use it
|
|
|
roles of heterotrophic prokaryotes
|
- decomposers
-symbiosis with eukaryotes -pathogens |
|
|
exotoxins vs. endotoxin
|
secreted by proteins (very toxic, ie. botulin toxin). endotoxins (outer bacteria membrane rarely fatal, ie. salmonella)
|
|
|
who are bacteria classified now?
|
- according to DNA sequencing, used to be shape and gramstain
|
|
|
taxonomy
|
- binomial nomenclature (each species gets two part names, genus followed by species).
|
|
|
hierarchy of biology (7)
|
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
|
|
|
clade
|
a part of a phylogenetic tree that has a common root
|
|
|
sister group
|
- a group with the exact same root
|
|
|
outgroup
|
with only a same root far back
|
|
|
analogy vs. homology
|
analogy
- convergent evolution (bird wing and insect wing), similar function homology - shared ancestry (bat wing and mammal arms) |
|
|
monopyletic group
|
has one common ancestor
|
|
|
derived trait
|
a trait shared by a group but not in their anscestor
|
|
|
synapomorphy
|
a derived trait shared by a group AND their ancestors
|
|
|
eukayotes and peptidoglycan
|
- never have it
|
|
|
from prokaryote to eukaryote evolutionary
|
- losing cell wall is crucial to allow inward folding and increase of cell suface area
|
|
|
endosymbiosis
|
- one cell swallows another but doesnt digest it
evidence: - doubel cell membrane around mitochondria -mitochondrial genes matcdh baterial genes - mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce indep. of cell |
|
|
amoebas
|
- protists
- may have hard shell - move with pseudopods and cytoplasmic streaming -unicellular - some are pathogenic |
|
|
slime moldes
|
- form large aggregates
-reproduce with fruiting bodies (simialr to spores) |
|
|
common anscestor of plasts had a single endosymbiosis eve
|
- uptake of cyanobacterium
- |
|
|
glaucophytes
|
a type of chlorophyll having eukaryote that has some peptidoglycan
|
|
|
green algae (clorophytes)
|
- unicellular and colonial
-live anywhere -large diversity |
|
|
red algae
|
- multicellular
- marine -have agar - have accessory pigments -look like corals |
|
|
excavates
|
- eukaryotes that lost miochondria (evolutionary reversal)
- unicellular - have flagella - symbionts (need other lfie to live). ie. live in termite stomachs, help digest wood DIPLOS AND PARABS |
|
|
alveolates (what is, and 3 types)
|
- cellulose in cell walls
- ciliates -apicomplexans -dinofalleglates |
|
|
-apicomplexans
|
- unicellular, non-functional chloroplasts, need hosts
-ex: plasmodium. infects red blood cells. |
|
|
ciliates
|
are in here (have cilia, unicellular aquaic)
ex: paramecium |
|
|
dinoflagellates
|
- have two flagella
- marine primpary production - can cause red tides - release neurotixins that shellfish eat |
|
|
rizaria (what is, two types)
|
- have long, thin psuedopods
- foraminarians - radiolarians |
|
|
- foraminarians
|
- marine
- form web like pseudopods - secrete calcium carbide (made limestone in oceans) |
|
|
radiolarians
|
- marine zooplankton
- thin, stuff pseudopods |
|
|
stramenophiles
|
- two unequal flagella, 1 has hairs
- brown algae |
|
|
brown algae
|
, multicellular, large
- form kelp forests -attach to rocks with glue |
|
|
diatomes
|
- unicellular
- source of diacomaceuous eath (toothpaste, metal polish, pools) |
|
|
oomycetes
|
- caused the potato famine
- decomposers - water molds and downy mildews - unicellular (filamentous) |
|
|
fungi are (6)
|
absorptive heterotrophs
- DECOMPOSERS (SAPROBES) - CELL WALL OF CHITIN - MULTICELLULAR - |
|
|
hyphae (what is it), 2 types
|
long branches of fungi filaments. mycelium are a tangled mass of hyphae.
septae (cross walls) coenocyctic (no cross walls) |
|
|
septate
|
cross-wall
|
|
|
mushrooms (fruiting bodies) produce spores by ________
|
formed for sexual reproduction meosis
|
|
|
mycorrihiza (how it benefits plants and fungi)
|
- plants: get water an minerals
fungi: get carbs |
|
|
lcihens
|
fungus + cyanobacterium (or unicell. green algae)
- they are pioneer species, can indicate air pollution |
|
|
phylogeny of fungi
|
Flourished during Permian
Closely related to animals – domain of botanists for >100 years ~70,000 species known |
|
|
key principles of exp design
|
1. Developing a hypothesis
2. Designing an experiment with controls 3. Designing an experiment with replication 4. Randomizing treatments |
|
|
macronuclei vs. micronuclei in paramecium
|
micro controls sex. macro control functions
|
