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153 Cards in this Set
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Parkinson's disease
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rigidity, muscle tremors, slow movements, and difficulty initiating physical and mental activity
-basal ganglia that help start or stop movement are impaired slow cognitive tasks early symptom- loss of olfaction depression and memory loss are common |
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causes of Parkinson's
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gradual progressive death of neurons (esp. in substantia nigra) which sends dopamine- relasing axons to the caudate nucleus and putamen
they lose axons and therefore dopamine loss of dopamine activity in the substantia nigra leads to less stimulation of the motor cortex and slower onset of movements |
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twin studies with Parkinson's
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monozygotic twins- one develops early onset- the other is almost certain to get it
twin develops it after 50- your risk is the same regardless of mono or dizygotic equal concordance for both kinds of twins implies low heritability genes have a weak influence on risk of late onset parkinson's |
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Parkinson's and chemicals
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can be caused by exposure to chemicals or drugs that damage cells of the substantia nigra
examples: herbicides or pesticides (farmers) MPTP (heroin like drug) people who smoke or drink coffee are less likely to develop parkinson's, but it isn't the nicotine or caffeine portion of these things that have the effect |
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L-dopa treatment
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l-dopa is a precursor to dopamine-->when you take it daily it reaches the brain and converts to dopamine
-doesn't help some people in later stages -doesn't prevent further loss of neurons -lots of side effects - nausea, restlessness, sleep problems, low blood pressure, repetitive movements, hallucinations, and delusions |
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other therapies
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-antioxidant drugs to decrease further damage
-drugs that directly stimulate dopamine receptors -gene therapy- using a virus to transfer into the rain a gene that increases dopamine synthesis -neurotrophins to promote growth of remaining neurons |
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Huntington's disease
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1 in 10,000 people in the US
motor symptoms begin with arm jerks and facial twitches then tremors start and develop into writhing gradual extensive brain damage, esp in the caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus but also cerebral cortex |
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huntingtin
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protein coded in the gene that causes Huntington
mutation outside of the brain doesn't cause any issues mutation in the brain- it occurs in neurons and impairs neurons in several ways -increase nt release- sometimes causing overstimulation -later it forms clusters that impairs the neuron's mitochondira -impairs the transport of chemicals down the axon |
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endogenous circannual rhythm
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an inner rhythm within birds that prepares them for seasonal changes
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endogenous circadian rhythm
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internal clock that makes people tired at certain points of the day (ie at night)
wake-sleep cycle but also have circadian rhythms for other things like eating, hormones, drinking, etc generate a cycle close to 24 hours |
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zeitgeber
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the stimulus that resets the circadian rhythm
light is the dominant zeitgeber for land animals others: exercise, arousal, meals, and temperature of the environment These are particularly important for blind people who can't rely on light as a zeitgeber social stimuli needs to be extreme (ie induce exercise or other vigorous activity) to work |
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jet lag
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disruption of circadian rhythm due to crossing time zones
internal and external times don't match up phase delay- stay up later and awaken late the next morning (east to west) phase advance- sleep earlier and awaken earlier (west to east)-->this is harder |
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danger of repeated circadian adjustments
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stress elevates adrenal hormone- cortisol
prolonged elevated cortisol damages neurons in the hippocampus damaged hippocampus leads to impaired memory ex: flight attendants with constant jet lag |
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
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part of the hypothalamus- above optic chiasm (where axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain)
provides the main control of the circadian rhythms for sleep and body temp damage to this area causes body's rhythms to become erratic SCN rhythms are genetic and able to be maintained in any environment (ie during a transplant it stays the same) controls activity level in the pineal and endocrine gland |
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retinohypothalamic path
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extends from the retina to the SCN
Axons of that path alter the SCNs settings |
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melanopsin
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retinal ganglion cells that have their own photopigment
recieve some input form rods and cones but even without enough input they respond to light located mainly near the nose they respond slowly to light so not to instantaneous changes this explains how blind people and mole rats respond to light cycles |
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melatonin
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secreted by the pineal gland
influences both circadian and circannual rhythms mostly secreted at night- increases about 2-3 hours before bedtime |
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coma
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extended period of unconsciousness caused by head trauma, stroke, or disease
little response to stimuli especially those that are usually painful |
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vegetative state
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alternates between periods of sleep and moderate arousal although during the aroused state the person shows no awareness of surroundings
no ability to speak or comprehend speech no purposeful activity |
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minimally conscious state
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one state higher than vegetative
occasional brief periods of purposeful actions and limited amount of speech comprehension |
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brain death
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no sign of brain activity and no response to any stimulus
physicians usually wait until someone has no brain activity for 24 hours before pronouncing brain death |
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electroencephalograph (EEG)
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records an average of the electrical potentials of the cells and fibers in the brain areas nearest each electrode on the scalp
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polysomnograph
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combination of EEG and eye movement records
presents a period of relaxed wakefulness for comparison |
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alpha waves
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recorded during a polysomnograph
frequency of 8 to 12 waves per second characteristic of relaxation not wakefulness |
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Stage 1
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dominated by irregular, jagged, low-voltage waves
overall brain activity is less than relaxed-wakefulness but higher than other sleep stages |
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Stage 2
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characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes
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sleep spindle
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consists of 12-14Hz waves during a burst that lasts at least half a second
result from oscilating interactions between cells in the thalamus and the cortex |
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K-complex
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sharp wave associated with temporary inhibition of neuronal firing
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Stages 3 &4
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slow-wave sleep
neuronal activity is highly synchronized by stage 4 sensory input to the cerebral cortex is greatly reduced and the few remaining sources of input can synchronize many cells |
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paradoxical sleep
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deep sleep in some ways and light in others
part of the brain will be really active while other parts are completely relaxed for non-humans |
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rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep
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same as paradoxical sleep but for humans
EEG shows irregular, low-voltage fast waves that indicate increased neuronal activity REM sleep in that case is light, but the body's muscles are the most relaxed during this period so it is also deep sleep cycles about every 90 minutes becomes more common towards the end of a night's sleep |
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pontomesencephalon
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part of the reticular formation that contributes to cortical arousal
releases acetylcholine and glutamate which excite cells in the hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal forbrain maintains arousal during wakefulness and increases it in response to new or challenging tasks |
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locus coeruleus
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small structure in the pons that is usually inactive, esp during sleep but emits bursts of impulses in response to meaningful events esp those that produce emotional arousal
releases norepinephrine widely through cortex which has large effect on brain |
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orexin or hypocretin
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axons extend to the basal forebrain where they stimulate neurons responsible for wakefulness
necessary for staying awake not waking up |
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GABA + sleep
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GABA is necessary for sleep because it inhibits synaptic activity- prevents stimulation in other areas of the brain
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insomnia
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inadequate sleep
caused by noise, uncomfortable temps, stress, paint, diet, and meds can also be caused by epilepsy, Parkinson's brain tumors, depression, anxiety, or other conditions can also be caused by dependance on drugs to help you sleep or alcohol |
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sleep apnea
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impaired ability to breathe while sleeping
causes sleepiness throughout the day, impaired attention, depression, and sometimes heart problems lack of oxygen causes lost neurons-->can cause deficiencies in learning, reasoning, attention, and impulse control |
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narcolepsy
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frequent periods of sleepiness during the day
four main symptoms (not all are always present) 1. gradual or sudden attacks of sleepiness during the day 2. occasional cataplexy- an attack of muscle weakness while the person remains awake. often triggered by strong emotions such as anger or great excitement 3. sleep paralysis- an inability to move while falling asleep or waking- can be experienced outside of narcolepsy, but is less frequent 4. hypnagogic hallucinations- dreamlike experiences that the person has trouble distinguishing from reality often occurring at the onset of sleep people with this lack the hypothalamic cells that produce and release orexin (makes you stay awake) |
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periodic limb movement disorder
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characterized by repeated involuntary movement of the legs and sometimes arms
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REM behavior disorder
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people move around vigorously during their REM cycles and apparently act out their dreams
frequently this incudes defending themselves against attack and they may punch, kick, or leap around most of them injure themselves, other people, or property mostly in older people esp older mean with brain diseases like Parkinson's |
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night terrors
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experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror
more severe than a nightmare occur during NREM sleep |
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James Lang Theory
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the autonomic arousal and skeletal actions occur before the emotion is registered
emotion has three parts- cognitions, actions, and feelings occur in that order predictions: people with weak autonomic responses should feel less emotions and increasing someone's responses should enhance emotion |
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pure autonomic failure
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output from the autonomic nervous system to the body fails either completely or almost completely
heartbeat and other organ functions continue but the nervous system no longer regulates them someone with this doesn't react to stressful experiences with change in heart rate, bp or sweating they report having the same emotions, but they are less intense they associate their emotions much more with cognition |
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Möbius syndrome
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cannot move their facial muscles to make a smile
they experience the same happiness and amusement but they have trouble making friends because people don't respond well to the lack of smiling |
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limbic system
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forebrain areas surrounding the thalamus
critical for emotion |
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insular cortex or insula
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part of brain that is strongly activated if you see a disgusting picture or the facial expression of someone who is feeling disgusted
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behavioral activation system (BAS)
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marked by low to moderate autonomic arousal and a tendency to approach, which could characterize either happiness or anger
activity in the left hemisphere- happier, more outgoing, and more fun-loving |
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behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
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increases attention and arousal, inhibits action, and stimulates emotions such as fear and disgust
activity in the right hemisphere- less satisfied with life, socially withdrawn, and prone to unpleasant emotions right hemisphere is also more specialized than the left for interpreting other people's expressions of emotion |
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the trolley dilemma
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MORAL DECISION
a runaway trolley is headed toward five people on a track, the only way you can prevent their death is to switch the trolley onto another track where is will kill one person- would it be right to pull the switch most people say it is right |
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the footbridge dilemma
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MORAL DECISION
you are standing on a footbridge overlooking a trolley track. a runaway trolley is headed towards five people. the only way to prevent their death is to push a heavy set stranger off the footbridge onto the track to block the trolley would it be right to push him? few say this is right activates areas of the brain known to respond to emotions- prefrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus |
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the lifeboat dilemma
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MORAL DECISION
you and six other people are on a lifeboat in icy waters, but it is overcrowded and starting to sink. if you push one person off the boat will stop sinking and the rest of you will survive is it right to push someone? few say this is right activates areas of the brain known to respond to emotions- prefrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus |
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the hospital dilemma
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you are a surgeon and five of your patients will die soon unless they get organ transplants (each need a different one)
you haven't been able to find any organ donors but then a visitor to the hospital arrived that has all the right tissue types for your other patients the nurse suggests killing them and using the organs to save the other five would this be right? almost no one says this is right |
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prefrontal damage
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Phineas Gage
he exhibited impulsive behavior and made poor decisions Antonio Damasio expressed almost no emotions he also made poor decisions that hurt many areas of his life he could predict the outcome of certain decisions, but not the emotions that would accompany that ie approval would feel good, trouble would feel bad |
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attack behaviors
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depend on the individual and the situation
the first attack increases the probability of a second attack |
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Monoamine oxidase A- MAOa
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enzyme that breaks down NTs dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonine thus lowering the available amounts
this interacts with childhood experiences- kids who experience severe maltreatment during childhood and have low levels of this exhibit much more antisocial behavior |
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startle reflex
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response to an unexpected loud noise
happens extremely quickly |
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Ubrach-Wiethe disease
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causes calcium build up in the amygdala- lack of fear responses and difficulty identifying other peoples emotional expressions
study of patient SM- she doesn't fear anything, she gets angry but not fearful this is dangerous because certain situations you should react with fear (being held up at gun point) so you can respond appropriately |
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panic disorder
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characterized by frequent periods of anxiety and occasional attacks of rapid breathing, increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling
extreme arousal of the sympathetic nervous system much more common in women than men more common in adolescents and young adults genetic predisposition, but not linked to 1 gene decreased activity of GABA and increased level of orexin (keeps you awake) |
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benzodiazepines
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Valium, Xanax, etc
bind to GABAa receptor - by binding to more sites in the chloride channel this drug facilitates the effects of GABA anti-anxiety effects in the amygdala, hypothalamus, and midbrain |
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general adaptation syndrome
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alarm- initial stage
characterized by increased activity of sympathetic nervous system, readying the body for brief emergency activity resistance- second stage the sympathetic response declines but the adrenal cortex secretes cortisol- used to prolong alertness, fight infections, and heal wounds exhaustion- final stage individual is tired, inactive, and vulnerable because the nervous and immune systems no longer have the energy to sustain heightened responses |
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HPA axis
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the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex
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adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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after the HPA axis activates the hypothalamus it induces the anterior pituitary gland to secrete this hormone, which in turn stimulates the human adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol (enhances metabolic activity and elevates blood levels of sugar and other nutrients)
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Leukocytes
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most important element of the immune system
known as white blood cells three types: B cells T cells and Natural killer cells |
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B-cells
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LEUKOCYTES
mostly found in bone marrow secrete antibodies which are y-shaped proteins that attache to particular kinds of antigens (antibody generator molecules) when these cells find an unfamilliar antigen they attack the cell this can cause the body to reject organ transplants |
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T-cells
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LEUKOCYTE
mature in the thymus gland several types of these cells attack the intruder directly and some help other types of leukocyte cells multiply |
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Natural Killer cells
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LEUKOCYTE
attack tumor cells and cells that are infected with viruses attacks all types of intruders |
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cytokines
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small proteins produced by leukocytes
combat infections and also communicate with the brain to elicit appropriate behaviors the body's way of telling the brain that it's ill |
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psychoneuroimmunology
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deals with the ways experiences alter the immune system and in turn influences the CNS
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Stress + the immune system
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in response to a stressful experience the nervous system activates the immune system to increase production of natural killer cells and secretion of cytokines
the increase of these cytokines help combat infection but also make produce the same symptoms as being ill therefore prolonged stress has similar wear on the body as prolonged illness |
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Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
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symptoms include frequent distressing recollections and nightmares about the event, avoidance of reminders of it, and vigorous reactions to noises and other stimuli
must last at least 1 month after the event most people with this disorder have a smaller than average hippocampus, they show lower cortisol levels before and after the event |
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classical conditioning
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Pavlov's dog
CS-->UCS-->UCR after several repitions CS-->CR |
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operant conditioning
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reinforcer- any event that increase future probability of the event
punishment- any event that suppresses the frequency of the response |
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engram
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physical representation of what has been learned
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equipotentiality
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concept that all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors; any part of the cortex can substitute for any other
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mass action
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the cortex works as a whole and more cortex is better
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Amnesia
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memory loss
two types: anterograde and retrograde |
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anterograde amnesia
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inability to form memories for events that happened after brain damage
future memories |
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retrograde amnesia
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loss of memory for events that occurred before the brain damage
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episodic memories
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memories of single personal events
impairment of these memories allows you to sometimes remember facts but not personal experiences |
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explicit/declarative memory
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deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory
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Implicit memory
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an influence of experience on behavior, even if you don't recognize that influence
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procedural memory
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the development of motor skills and habits
special kind of implicit memory |
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Case study: HM's memory
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-normal working memory
-severe anterograde amnesia for declarative memory- ie difficulty forming new declarative memories especially episodic ones -some degree of retrograde amnesia- mainly limited to episodic memories -better implicit memory than explicit -nearly intact procedural memory |
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hippocampus + memory
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patients with damage to this area have trouble learning new facts but can acquire new skills
this area is critical for declarative memory- esp episodic |
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delayed matching-to-sample task
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an animal sees an object (the sample) and then, after a delay gets a choice between two objects which it must choose the one that matches the sample
requires declarative memory- hippocampal memory reduces ability to perform well on this task |
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delayed nonmatching- to-sample task
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an animal sees an object (the sample) and then, after a delay gets a choice between two objects which it must choose the one that doesnt match the sample
requires declarative memory- hippocampal memory reduces ability to perform well on this task |
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hippocampus + spatial memory
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this area of the brain (as exhibited through a study of taxi drivers in London) plays a large role in spatial memory and can even grow depending on how long person was a taxi driver (thereby increasing their accuracy with spatial memory)
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hippocampus + contextual memory
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this area of the brain is very important for remembering details and context
recent memories are heavily dependent on this area and include a lot of detail which can degrade over time as time passes memories become less dependent on this area and more dependent on the cerebral cortex |
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basal ganglia
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gradual learning depends on this area-->ie learning patterns requires this area of the brain
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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brain damage caused by prolonged thiamine deficiency
mostly occurs in chronic alcoholics who go for weeks with only ingesting alcohol and no vitamins thiamine= vitamin B1-->metabolizes glucose deficiency leads to loss or shrinkage of neurons in the brain, esp the dorsomedial thalamus symptoms: apathy, confusion, and memory loss (like preforntal cortex damage) major impairment of episodic memory and sparing of implicit memory (like hippocampal injury) |
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confabulation
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distinctive symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome
patients fill in memory gaps with guesses generally the answer was true at some point but isn't any longer and they are usually more pleasant than current answers occur in episodic memory questions not facts or nonsense |
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Alzheimer's
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gradually progresses to more serious memory loss, confusion, depression, restlessness, hallucinations, delusions, sleeplessness, and loss of apetite
affects 5% of people between 65-74 people with down syndrome almost always get it if they live to old age |
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amyloid-ß
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protein that accumulates inside and outside neurons
net effect is damage to dendritic spines, decrease synaptic input, and decrease plasticity these damaged structures cluster into structures called plaques-->as these accumulate the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and other areas waste away |
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tau protein
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intercellular support structure of axons
high levels of amyloid-ß cause more phosphate groups to attach to tau proteins these proteins then can't bind to its usual targets so it spreads through the body-->this magnifies the damage |
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semantic dementia
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damage to the anterior and inferior regions of the temporal lobe cause this which is a loss of semantic memory
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Hebbian synapse
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a synapse that increases the effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
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habituation
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decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly and accompanied by no change in other stimuli
ie if your clock chimes every hour you stop having as great of a response |
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sensitization
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an increase in response to mild stimuli as a result of exposure to more intense stimuli
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long-term potentiation (LTP)
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one or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a rapid series of stimul- this burse leaves some of the synapses potentiated (more responsive to new input of the same type) for minutes, days or weeks
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specificity
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if some of the synapses onto a cell have been highly active and others have not then only the active ones become strengthened
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cooperativity
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nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP much more strongly than does repeated stimulation by just one axon
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associativity
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pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later response to the weak input. in this regard LTP matches what we would expect of Hebbian synapses
in some cases a synapse that was almost completely inactive before LTP becomes effective afterward |
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long-term depression (LTD)
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prolonged decrease in response at a synapse, occurs for axons that have been less active than others
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corpus callosum
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connects both halves of the brain
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laterialization
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division of labor between the two hemispheres of the brain
left side- language right side-dominant for recognizing emotion |
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epilepsy
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in some severe cases of this disorder surgeons will cut the corpus callosum
this means that the seizures experienced for this disorder will only affect half of the body (since it can't cross to the other side) and has also effectively decreased the amounts of seizures these patients see |
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split-brain people
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these individuals maintain their intellect and motivation and still walk without difficulty despite having their corpus callosum severed
they are actively able to split tasks between both sides of the brain |
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Williams syndrome
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affects 1 in 20,000 people
mental retardation in most regards except that they speak gramatically and fluently caused by the deletion of several genes from chromosome 7 leads to decreased gray mater- esp for visual processing fascinated by faces- their fusiform cortex is twice as large have severe anxiety or are quarrelsome and irritable (not good for social relationships) |
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language acquisition device
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built in mechanism for acquiring language
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nonfluent aphasia
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language impairment caused by damage to Broca's area
have comprehension deficits when the meaning of a sentence depends on prepositions, word endings, or unusual word order-->ie the structure is complicated also causes trouble when producing speech - omits prepositions and other grammatical connectives but includes mostly nouns and verbs poor pronunciation |
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fluent aphasia
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language impairment caused by damage to Wernicke's area
characterized by poor language comprehension and impaired ability to remember the names of objects can still speak smoothly speech is grammatical but often nonsensical, has trouble finding the right word- esp names of objects |
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dyslexia
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specific impairment of reading in someone with adequate vision, motivation, and overall cognitive skills
more likely in boys linked to at least 4 genes that produce deficits in hearing or cognition linked to difficulty reading- understanding language is a combination of sound and reading can also suffer auditory and attention problems |
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dysphonetic dislexics
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have trouble sounding out words, so they try to memorize each word as a whole and when they dont recogonize the word they guess based on its context
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dyseidetic dislexics
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these readers sound out words well enough but they fail to recognize the word as a while
they read slowly and have particular trouble with irregularly spelled words most severe of these cases suffer from damage that restricts field of vision they experience lots of eye movements while reading (letter by letter) |
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dualism
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belief that the mind and body are different kinds of substance that exist independently
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monoism
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universe consists of only one type of substance
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materialism
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view that everything that exists is material or physical
mental events don't exist at all |
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mentalism
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the view that only the mind really exists and that the physical world could not exist unless some mind were aware of it
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identity position
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the view that mental processes and certain kinds of brain processes are the same thing, described in different terms
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phi phenomenon
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if you see a dot in one position alternating with a similar dot nearby it will seem as though the dot is moving back and forth
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inattentional blindness
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if something in a complex scene slowly changes while you blink your eye you probably wont notice it unless you are paying attention to the particular item that changes
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Stroop effect
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the difficulty of ignoring the words and saying the color of the ink
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spatial neglect
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a tendency to ignore the left side of the body or left side of objects when there is damage to the right hemisphere
doesn't generally happen for damage to the left side |
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major depression (MDD)
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symptoms:
sad, feeling worthless and helpless, lack of energy, contemplate suicide, have trouble sleeping, cannot concentrate, find little pleasure, and can hardly imagine being happy again -5% of adults in the US -moderate degree of heritability but no one gene -people with early onset (before 30) have high likelihood of relatives with the disorder as well as anxiety disorders, attention-deficit disorder, alcohol or weed abuse, ocd, bulimia, migraines, and ibs -people with late onset have high probability of relatives with circulatory problem |
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postpartum depression
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after giving birth this disorder occurs
stress hormones peak late in pregnancy and ovarian hormones go through major changes around the time of delivery- might be cause |
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tricyclics
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antidepressant
blocks the trasporter proteints that reabsorb serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine into the presynaptic neuron after their release result: prolongs presence of NTs in synaptic cleft also blocks histamine receptors (drowsiness), acetycholine receptors (dry mouth and difficulty urinating), and sodium channels (causes heart irregularities) |
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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs)
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similar to tricyclics but only affects serotonin
ex: Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil have milder symptoms than tricyclics but equally effective |
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Serotonin norepnephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)
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Cymbalta
block reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine |
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monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
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block the enzyme monoamine oxidase - a presynaptic terminal enzyme that metabolizes catecholamines and serotonin into inactive forms
this means the presynaptic terminal has more of this transmitter available for release this is used after trying tricyclics and SSRIs side effect: must avoid foods with tyramine (cheese, raisins, wine) because the combination of the two increases blood pressure |
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atypical antidepressants
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everything besides MAOIs, SSRIs, SNRIs, and tricyclics
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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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electrically induced seizures
doesn't work well for schizophrenia people with severe MDD can respond well but only used if they don't respond well to drugs downsides : memory loss (common), high risk of relapse within a few months |
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depression + sleep
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most people with depression have altered sleep patterns (these occur before the depression)
got to bed at the normal time but awaken early and unable to fall back asleep more eye movements than normal during REM a full night without sleep is a quick fix for depression, but is short lived and increases sensitivity to pain |
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unipolar disorder
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vary between normality and depression
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bipolar disorder
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alternate between depression and mania (characterized by restless activity, excitement, laughter, self-confidence, rambling speech, and loss of inhibitions)
also exhibit attention deficits, poor impulse control, and impairments of verbal memory |
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bipolar I disorder
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full blown episodes of mania
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bipolar II disorder
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milder manic phases called hypomania- characterized by agitation or anxiety
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lithium
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treatment for bipolar disorder
stabilizes mood, preventing a relapse into either mania or depression must be highly regulated- too little doesn't work and too much is toxic |
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seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
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depression that recurs during a particular season
most prevalent near the poles where the winter nights are long phase-delayed sleep and temp rhythms most other types of depression are phase-advanced treatments: very bright lights for an hour or more each day (effective at any time during the day) |
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schizophrenia
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deteriorated in everyday functioning (work, interpersonal relations, self care, etc) for at least 6 months and must show two of the following
delusions hallucinations disorganized speech (rambling or incoherent) grossly disorganized behavior weak or absent signs of emotion, speech, and socialization |
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delusions
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unjustifiable beliefs such as "beings from outer space are controlling my actions"
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hallucinations
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false sensory experiences such as hearing voices when alone
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positive symptoms v. negative symptoms
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positive- behaviors are present that should be absent-->delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and behavior
negative- behaviors that are absent that should be present-->weak or absent emotions, speech or socialization these are usually stable over time and difficult to treat |
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concordance + schizophrenia
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-monozygotic twins have high concordance (agreement)
-about 50% concordance-->these twins could differ a couple genes or experience different environmental influences -greater similarity between dizygotic twins than siblings |
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neurodevelopmental hypothesis
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schizophrenia begins with abnormalities in the prenatal or neonatal development of the nervous system based on either genetics or other influences
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chlorpromazine
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relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most patients
blocks dopamine synapses |
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phenothiazines and butyrophenones
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two chemical typs of antipsychotic or neuroleptic drugs
behavioral benefits of these drugs develop gradually over a month or more but symptoms generally return after stopping treatment blocks dopamine synapses |
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dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
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schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas
although the overall dopamine isn't higher the turnover is elevated (esp in the basal ganglia) ie the neurons release dopamine faster |
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substance induced psychotic disorder
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characterized by hallucinations and delusions, the positive symptoms of schizophrenia
occurs after repeated use of amphetamine or methamphetamine or cocaine each of these increases or prolongs the activity of dopamine synapses |
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glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia
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deficient activity at glutamate synapses, esp in prefrontal cortex
dopamine inhibits glutamate release or glutamate stimulates neurons that inhibit dopamine release therefore increased dopamine would produce the same effects as decreased glutamate |
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phencyclidine (PCP)
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drug that inhibits the NMDA glutamate receptors
at low doses it produces intoxication and slurred speech at larger doses it produces both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia can produce a long lasting relapse for someone who has had schizophrenic periods |
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mesolimbocoritcal system
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set of neurons that project from the midbrain tegmentum to the limbic system
also blocks dopamine neurons in the mesostriatal system that projects to the basal ganglia |
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tardive dyskinesia
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characterized by tremors and other involuntary movement that develop gradually and to varying degrees among different patients
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second generation antipsychotics
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alleviate schizophrenia without producing movement problems
clozapine is most common type more effective than older drugs at treating negative symptoms of schizophrenia side effects: weight gain, impairment of the immune system |