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260 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the physiological roles of the blood
|
1) gas transport
2) nutrient transport 3) waste removal - transport 4) temperature regulation 5) infection - immunological defense 6) protection from disease and fluid loss |
|
What % body weight is blood?
|
8% of total body weight
|
|
Blood volume
for Males / Females |
5-6 L in males (average)
4-5 L in females (average) |
|
What are the components of Blood
|
55% plasma
45% formed elements |
|
Blood Plasma is what % water?
|
0ver 90% water!
|
|
where are Plasma Proteins created?
|
The Liver..... bout 7% of blood plasma circulating.
|
|
What makes up the highest % of plasma proteins?
|
Albumin!!!! it maintains blood osmotic pressure
|
|
What is the smallest % of blood plasma in circulation?
|
electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, gases, waste products
|
|
Albumin binds with lipid _______ hormones, free fatty acids, (what element?) and other substances which are somewhat (phobic or philic)?
|
soluble hormones
Ca+ hydrophobic |
|
1/3 of Red Blood cell’s weight is ______
|
hemoglobin
|
|
Each hemoglobin molecule can carry ___ oxygen molecules from lungs to tissue cells
|
4
|
|
Where do Red Blood Cells originate from?
|
Red Bone Marrow
|
|
How long do RBCs live?>
|
120 days
|
|
Hematocrit: (definition)?
|
percentage of blood volume composed by RBCs
|
|
blood doping's fancy terminology
|
polycythemia
|
|
Anemia, RBC deficiency, has what symptoms?
|
decreased Erythropoiesis
increased destruction of RBCs & hemoglobin THUS can't carry gas as well. |
|
Ratio of WBCs to RBCs
|
1 WBC for every 700 RBC
|
|
# of circulating RBCs, WBCs,and Platelets?
|
5 million red
5-10,000 white blood cells Normal platelet 150,000-400,000/drop of blood |
|
Platelet Activation
EXTRINSIC pathway is slow or quick? what is it involved with? Example of when it would be activated? |
rapid response pathway
involves a trauma to blood vessels or extravascular tissues what we commonly see in response to when we have a scratch on our skin and bleeding occurs |
|
Intrinsic Pathway of Platelet Activation is slow/quick, involved with what? what is an example of it?
|
slower response pathway
involves a trauma to the blood itself or exposure of blood to collagen what we typically associate with atherosclerotic plaque build-up, seen with hypertension |
|
Which are “universal recipients"
|
AB
|
|
What are universal donors?
|
O
|
|
Treatment for Rh-/Rh+ mother/baby
|
Rhogam
|
|
What happens if not given Rhogam to a mother with Rh- and a chid Rh+
|
mother’s antibodies will attack babies blood and cause anemia
|
|
Passage through the heart
|
Superior Vena Cava
Right Atrium Tricuspid Valve Right Ventricle Pulmonary Valve Pulmonary Artery Lungs Pulmonary Vein LEFT atrium Mitral Valve Left Ventricle Aortic Valve AORTA BODY arteries arterioles capillaries blood RETURNS to Heart in VENULES to Veins to Right Atrium |
|
What walls are thicker Right or Left Ventricle?
|
Left ventircle pumps blood into the BODY, right ventricle pumps blood into the LUNGS
|
|
What is the purpose of the coronary arteries?
|
Supplys oxygenated blood to the heart muscles
VERY IMPORTANT |
|
Coronary Veins serve what purpose?
|
Collects Waste from cardiac muscle
|
|
ischemia may cause
|
Hypoxia, weakens myocardial cells, byproduct of an angina
|
|
occurs when ventricles are relaxed, chordae tendineae are slack and papillary muscles are relaxed
|
A-V valves open and allow blood to flow from atria into ventricles when ventricular pressure is lower than atrial pressure
|
|
A-V valves close preventing backflow of blood into atria
|
chordae tendinae are taut, papillary muscles contracted
|
|
Cardiac muscle has these features......
|
intercalated discs
gap junctions involunary muscle striated muscle 1 nucleus per cell |
|
Conduction system of the heart
|
Sinoatrial (SA) node triggers Atrioventricular (AV) node triggers bundle of HIS down the right and left bundle branches to the PURKINJE fibers (bottommost part of the heart)
|
|
Pacemaker is also the _____ node
|
Sinoatrial (SA) node
conducts the heart |
|
Action Potential in heart muscle fibers due to _________ization and inflow or ___+ to the cells
|
Depolarization and Na+
|
|
Repolarization occurs when __ + channels open and they flow OUT of the cells
|
K+
|
|
Sympathetics are post ganglionic nerves innervate the atria, ventricles and nodes and the neurotransmitter is _______________
|
norepinephrine
|
|
_____ channel- lower the threshold for depolarization so depolarization occurs faster.
|
Calcium
|
|
Parasympathetics: Vagus nerve branches and post-ganglionic fibers innervates the SA and AV nodes , the neurotransmitter is ___________ and the effect is a _______ in HR by inactivating the Ca channels, DON”T INNERVATE VENTRICLES
|
acetylcholine
decrease |
|
Bradycardia <__#_ bpm
|
60
|
|
Tachycardia ># bpm
|
100
|
|
Atrial depolarization is during what part of an EKG
|
PR
|
|
Ventricular Depolarization is during what part of an EKG
|
QRS
|
|
Ventricular REPOLARIZATION is during what part of an EKG
|
T
|
|
Precordial Leads for a 6 lead
|
V1: right 4th intercostal space
V2: left 4th intercostal space V3: halfway between V2 and V4 V4: left 5th intercostal space, mid-clavicular line V5: horizontal to V4, anterior axillary line V6: horizontal to V5, mid-axillary line |
|
Atrial fibers depolarization and _____ wave appears
|
P wave
|
|
During P wave, the ___ contracts
|
Atria contracts
known as SYSTOLE |
|
When the AP moves through the bundle branches,Purkinje fibers and ventricular myocardium the ________ is produced (EKG)
|
QRS
|
|
Repolarization of ventricles produces the ____ wave
|
T wave
|
|
ventricular relaxation
|
DIASTOLE
(repolarization of ventricles, T wave) |
|
ST segment is typically ______________, however if it is ____________ it may indicate that the heart is damaged or not receiving enough blood
|
horizontal or flat
elevated or depressed |
|
Elevated ST segment may = _________________________
|
acute myocardial infarction
|
|
depressed ST segment may = ________________
|
myocardial ischaemia or ventricular hypertrophy
|
|
Contraction of heart is
|
SYSTOLE
|
|
Relaxation of heart is
|
DIASTOLE
|
|
When this valve opens, blood is ejected from the heart to the Lungs and the the body
|
SL valve opens
|
|
As pressure decreased, blood fills into the atria during ___________
|
isovolumetric relaxation
|
|
When pressure increases in the atria, ____ valves open and ventricles fill with blood
|
AV valves open
|
|
This sound (_____): is created by blood turbulence associated with the closing of the atrioventricular valves soon after ventricular systole begins.
|
lubb
|
|
This sound (________): represents the closing of the semilunar valves close to the end of the ventricular systole.
|
Dupp
|
|
How much blood is in the ventricle during diastole
|
~130 ml
|
|
How much blood is in the ventricle at systole
|
~60 ml
|
|
What is the volume ejected per beat from each ventricle
|
~70 ml
|
|
Stroke Volume =
|
End Diastolic volume
-minus- End Systole volume |
|
Cardiac output =
|
Stroke volume X Heart Rate
|
|
Ejection Fraction (amount of blood ejected from ventricle after systole) =
|
Stroke Volume /End Diastolic Voume
|
|
___ = SV x HR
|
Q
|
|
Q is typically
|
75 ml/beat x 70 beat/min = 5.25 L/min
5-6 L/min |
|
An athelete's Q (SV x HR) is usually higher or lower than a normal persons?
|
Higher
|
|
Blood pressure is
|
caused by contraction of the ventricles
|
|
Common BP is
|
120 mm Hg during systole & 80 during diastole
|
|
BP refers to pressure in ______
|
arteries
|
|
Pulse pressure is
|
the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure
|
|
Parasympathetics Do or don't innervate ventricles
|
Don't
|
|
sympathetics can increase/decrease both HR and contractility
|
increase
|
|
Contractatility
|
the forcefulness of contraction of the ventricle fibers
|
|
greater preload (stretch) on cardiac muscle fibers just before they contract, _______ force of contraction
|
increase
|
|
These mechanism help blood return from veins to heart
|
Muscle
respiratory pumps |
|
During inhalation, diaphragm is ____
|
pushed down, more blood flows to heart when we inhale
|
|
Blood flows from areas of _____pressure to areas of _________pressure
|
higher to lower pressure
|
|
Resistance =
|
1/(diameter^4)
The smaller the diameter of the vessel, the greater resistance it offers to blood flow |
|
Vasoconstriction
|
Decreased diameter, decreased Blow FLow
Increased Resistance, increased Blood Pressure |
|
Vasodilation
|
Diameter increases, Blood flow increases, Resistance decreases, Blood pressure decreases
|
|
Viscosity
|
mostly depends of ratio of RBC to plasma
|
|
Greater resistance to flow =
|
Greater BP
|
|
baroreceptors
|
monitor blood pressure
|
|
chemoreceptors
|
monitor blood acidity
|
|
Antiontension
|
hypertension
|
|
Angiotensin
|
Effects ADH release
|
|
ACE inhibitors
|
block activity of ACE, therefore not as much conversion of angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2 and therefore not as much vasoconstriction of the arterioles…..leads to decreased BP
|
|
ACE
|
converts AI into AII, which then vasoconstricts arterioles and results in increased BP
|
|
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
|
Increases HR and force of contractions, Increases Q
Increase blood flow to the muscles Increases (Both) or Decreases BP (Epi only) Both increase HR and SV Norepi- vasoconstriction in skin and abdomen arterioles Epi- vasodilation in skeletal and cardiac muscle |
|
Antidiuretic hormone
|
Released in response to dehydration or decreased BV
Causes vasoconstriction, increases BP |
|
Macrocirculation
|
large arteries and veins that do not change diameter
|
|
Microcirculation
|
vessels smaller than 300 microns, that can actively change their diameter via contraction of vascular smooth muscle
|
|
Bulk Flow
|
Movement from area of high pressure to area of low pressure
Faster than diffusion |
|
Net Filtration Pressure
|
Determines whether fluids leave or enter capillaries
net outward pressure of 10 mm Hg at arterial end of a capillary bed = filtration net inward pressure of 9 mm Hg at venous end of a capillary bed = reabsorption |
|
Edema
|
Abnormal increase in interstitial fluid if filtration > reabsorption
(increased BP) |
|
Edema
|
accumulation of excess fluid in interstitial tissues.
|
|
Direct application of acetylcholine to the heart
|
will decrease heart rate
|
|
Most people have conscious control over their autonomic nervous system
|
False
|
|
parasympathetic division
|
REST & DIGEST
|
|
Sympathetic
|
Fight or Flight
|
|
The sympathtic nervous system, when stimulated, will cause blood vessels
|
to dilate in some areas, but constrict in others
|
|
The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into the cytosol
|
At the beginning of a contraction
|
|
Sympathetic system ganglions are located _____ from the effector organs
|
FAR AWAY
|
|
_____ lowers blood glucose levels
|
insulin
|
|
The fight or flight response is initiated by the
|
hypothalamus
|
|
This is a band of connective tissue that surrounds muscles.
|
epimysium
|
|
The brain must have an almost continuous supply of
|
Oxygen and Glucose
|
|
Hormone exhaustion stage of GAS?
|
cortisol
|
|
Hormone inhibit osteoclastic activity?
|
calcitonin
|
|
Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system will (eyes)
|
cause the eye to dilate
|
|
What endocrine gland is part of the autonomic nervous system?
|
Adrenal
|
|
total body weight of the average adult is muscle tissue
|
40-50%
|
|
least powerful type of muscle fiber
|
Slow oxidative fiber
|
|
Hormone increase in the blood osmotic pressure
|
ADH
|
|
Cortisol stimulates
|
gluconeogenesis
|
|
Thrombosis refers to clotting in a blood vessel that has not been broken.
|
TRUE
|
|
Agranular Lymphocytes
|
both lymphocytes and monocytes
|
|
What occurs after the QRS phase of the ECG
|
the ventricles contract
(remember that the electrical signal/action potention preceeds the actual muscle contraction ) |
|
Stimulation of this nerve reduces heart rate
|
Vagus nerve
|
|
cardiac conduction system in the correct order
|
SA node
AV node bundle of His right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers |
|
Which of these periods represents greatest cardiac output?
|
ventricular systole
|
|
Which of the below is the most important capillary exchange method
|
Diffusion
|
|
hormones will decrease blood pressure
|
atrial natriuretic peptide.
|
|
Muscle Tissue can produce heat via _____ contractions of skeletal muscle
|
involuntary
|
|
Properties of Muscle Tissue
|
Excitability
Contractility Extensibility Elasticity Thermal |
|
I band is lighter because
|
It has only actin
|
|
Striations in A band are due to
|
Actin and myosin together makes it appear darker
|
|
Surrounds whole muscle
|
epimysium
|
|
surrounds bundles (fascicles)
|
perimysium
|
|
Sarcoplasm contains a lot of ____ for energy production and oxygen storage
|
glycogen
|
|
This organelle stores ____ in relaxed muscle
|
Ca2+
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum |
|
Release of ______ triggers muscle contraction
|
Ca2+
|
|
Myofibrils have 3 kinds of proteins
|
contractile proteins (actin/myosin)
Regulatory Proteins (troponin/tropomyosin) Structural Proteins (dystrophin/titin,etc) |
|
______ Hold Thick filaments in place
|
M line proteins
|
|
This covers the myosin binding site in relaxed muscle (to make sure it doesnt contract)
|
Tropomyosin
|
|
Thin filaments are held in place by ______ lines
|
Z lines
|
|
blocks release of neurotransmitter at the NMJ so muscle contraction can not occur
|
Botulinum toxin (Botox
|
|
causes muscle paralysis by blocking the ACh receptors
used to relax muscle during surgery |
Curare (plant poison from poison arrows)
|
|
Motor unit
|
one motor neuron & all the skeletal muscle cells (fibers) it innervates
|
|
At a NMJ ___ enters the synaptic vesicle, releasing _____ which binds to the _______
|
Ca2+
ACh Sarcolemma |
|
When _____ binds to troponin, ________ falls off the myosin binding sites allowing contraction to occur
|
Ca2+
tropomyosin |
|
myosin binds to actin forming _______
|
crossbridges
|
|
Contraction can occur for as long as there is enough _________ and _______
|
ATP & Ca2+
|
|
_____ makes myosin detach from actin at their crossbridges
|
ATP
|
|
Thick & thin filaments do not change in length
TRUE or FALSE |
TRUE
|
|
_______ breaks down ACh within the synaptic cleft
resulting in Relaxation and end of action potential |
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
|
|
During relaxation Ca2+ release channels _____ and tropomyosin _________ the actin site
|
close
covers |
|
After death, Ca2+ ions leak out of the SR and allow myosin heads to bind to actin
Since ATP synthesis has ceased, crossbridges cannot detach from actin until enzymes start to digest decomposing cells |
Rigor Mortis
|
|
Skeletal Muscle contraction
|
Calcium channels open, then ACh comes into synaptic cleft, ACh binding causes ligand-gated sodium channels to open triggering muscle Action Potential
|
|
Type 1 of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
|
slow oxidative, slow-twitch
red in color (lots of mitochrondria, myoglobin, blood vessels), maintains posture (sustained contractions) |
|
Type 2a of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
|
fast oxidative-glycolytic
red in color (mitochrondria, myoglobin, blood vessels) Used for walking/sprinting |
|
Type 2b
|
fast glycolytic fibers, fast-twitch
White in color (few mitochondria/myoglobin) used for weight lifting |
|
This is the smallest Muscle fiber
|
Type 1
|
|
This is the largest Muscle fiber
|
Type 2b
|
|
skeletal muscle fibers can/can’t divide after 1st year
|
Can't
|
|
muscle shortens to produce force and movement
|
Concentric
|
|
muscle lengthens while maintaining force and movement
|
Eccentric
|
|
tension generated, no muscle shortening, no movement
|
Isometric
|
|
second stimulus applied before muscle has completely relaxed after the previous stimulus
|
Wave summation
|
|
Excess _____ within resting muscle used to form creatine phosphate
|
ATP
|
|
______ is 3-6x more plentiful than ATP within muscle
|
Creatine Phosphate
|
|
If no O2 present, pyruvic acid converted to _________
|
lactic acid
|
|
In Anaerobic Cellular Respiration, ATP is produced from glucose breakdown into pyruvic acid during ________
|
glycolysis
|
|
Aerobic Cellular Respiration is best for activities
>30sec>10min |
requires oxygen
|
|
Muscle fatigue occurs due to
|
depletion of Creatine Phosphate
Low Ca2+ count in sarcoplasm low oxygen or glycogen buildup of lactic acid |
|
Cardiac Muscle is ______ control
|
involuntary control
autorhythmic from pacemaker |
|
Cardiac Muscle
|
Intercalated Discs
Gap Junctions Striated 1 nucleus per |
|
Small, involuntary cells, oval-shaped, central nucleus
|
smooth muscle cells
|
|
Smooth muscle (yes/no) has sarcomeres
|
NO SARCOMERES
|
|
In smooth muscle, the regulator protein that binds calcium ions in the cytosol
|
calmodulin
|
|
______ hormones: travel in blood, act on distant target cells
|
ENDOCRINE
|
|
bind to transport proteins to be carried in the blood
|
Lipid-soluble
|
|
circulate freely in plasma (no transporter required
|
Water-soluble:
|
|
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to and activate receptors within cells
|
DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION
|
|
Direct Gene Activation
example |
Steroids
|
|
SECOND MESSENGER ACTIVATION
|
Water-soluble hormones activate plasma membrane receptors
|
|
): increase glucose in the blood causes the release of insulin by the pancr
|
HUMORAL (blood or fluid
|
|
a preganglionic sympathetic nerve fiber stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines
|
NEURAL
|
|
: pituitary gland secretes thyroid stimulating hormone that in-turn causes the thyroid gland to release T3 and T4
|
HORMONAL
|
|
The Master gland
|
Pituitary Gland
|
|
the major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine systems
|
Hypothalamus =
|
|
Receives input from cortex, thalamus, limbic system & internal organs
|
Hypothalamus
|
|
The ______ and the _______ gland regulate virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis
|
hypothalamus
pituitary gland |
|
These hormones are made in the Anterior Lobe
|
ACTH (adrenocorticotropin hormone)
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) FSH (follicule stimulating hormone) LH (luteinizing hormone) Human growth hormone (hGH) Prolactin (PRL) |
|
most plentiful anterior pituitary hormone
|
hGH
|
|
Essential for normal growth during childhood and adolescence
|
hGH
|
|
Causes release of estrogen or testosterone
|
Follicle Stimulating (FSH)
|
|
Triggers ovulation, stimulates estrogen and progesterone release
|
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
|
|
Initiates and maintains milk secretion by mammary glands
|
Prolactin
|
|
Maintains blood volume by causing kidneys to retain more water, inhibits sweat glands, contracts arterioles
Stimulated by high osmotic pressure |
Vasopressin
|
|
Highly active T# in the thyroid
(T4 or T3)? |
T3
|
|
Less calcium in the blood
|
puts it into bone (by less osteoclast activity
|
|
Inhibits bone resorption by osteoclasts
Builds bone |
Calcitonin
|
|
Regulates the homeostasis of calcium and phosphate
increase blood calcium level decrease blood phosphate level Increases the number # and activity of osteoclasts |
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
|
|
Promotes bone resorption and release of calcium (Ca2+)
|
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
|
|
kidneys secrete _____ to cause reabsorption of Ca2+ from food
|
calcitrol
|
|
Inner Medulla produces.....
|
epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine
|
|
Adrenal Cortex
|
Aldosterone Cortisol
Androgens |
|
regulate Na+ and K+ levels in the body
Regulated by: renin-angiotensin pathway |
ALDOSTERONE
|
|
= converts AI into AII, which then vasoconstricts arterioles and results in increased BP
|
ACE
|
|
ACE inhibitors increase or decreases BP?
|
DECREASE
|
|
metabolism and stress response
|
CORTISOL
|
|
Condition due to high levels of cortisol in body tissue
|
Cushing’s Syndrome:
|
|
highest % of Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
|
Epinephrine (~80%)
Glycogen Breakdown Lipolysis |
|
The other % of hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
|
Norepinephrine (~20%)
Heart Rate Force of Contraction Blood Pressure Blood Flow to heart, liver, muscle, adipose tissue Dilation of airways |
|
Stimuli for the Release of Catecholamines
|
Decreases in blood glucose levels
Increase in emotional stress |
|
Pancreatic beta cells
|
Insulin
|
|
Pancreatic alpha cells
|
Glucagon
|
|
promotes glucose uptake from blood
Decreases blood glucose |
Insulin
|
|
promotes release of glucose into the blood
Increases blood glucose |
Glucagon
|
|
converts glycogen to glucose
|
Glucagon
|
|
glucose to glycogen
|
Insulin
|
|
Insulin is a what kind of hormone?
|
Anabolic hormone
|
|
Type I Diabetes
|
Insulin Dependent
Juvenile onset deficiency of insulin |
|
Type 2 Diabetes
|
Non insulin dependent DM
adult onset insulin produced but not responsive |
|
Type II Diabetes treatment
|
diet modificiation
weight loss |
|
Type I diabetes treatment
|
Insulin injections
|
|
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
regulates what in men |
production of sperm
|
|
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in females
|
regulates ovulation, ovarian cycle, and uterine cycle
|
|
____ stimulates testosterone secretin
|
LH
|
|
_____ cells secrete testerosterone
|
Leydig cells
|
|
____ stimulates spermatogenesis
|
FSH
|
|
Female Reproductive Cycle is controlled by the hormone cycle via what glands?
|
anterior pituitary, hypothalamus
|
|
LH functions to form the __________
|
the corpus luteum which secretes estrogens, progesterone, relaxin & inhibin
|
|
Ovulation occurs due to a spike in ________
|
LH and estrogens
|
|
This hormone is mainly found in the secretory/thick uterine wall
|
progesterone
|
|
These types of hormones circulate
freely in plasma |
water soluble
|
|
Lipid soluble hormones act directly on
receptors in this area |
nucleus
|
|
This is a specific second messenger used by
hormones |
Cyclic AMP
|
|
Non-striated and involuntary
|
smooth muscle
|
|
Binds to Ca2+
|
troponin
|
|
The area that does not contain myosin
|
I band
|
|
The influx of this causes exocytosis in a
motor nerve |
Ca2+
|
|
This blood type has no anti-A or anti-B
antibodies |
AB
|
|
Resistance to flow is inversely proportional
to this |
Viscocity
|
|
This contributor to TPR depends mainly upon
the ratio of RBC to plasma |
Viscocity
|
|
This causes valves to open and close
|
pressure changes
|
|
This term refers to the influx of extra cellular
calcium |
Calcium induced calcium release
|
|
This nerve slows heart rate when excited
|
Vagus
|
|
This ECG lead looks from the right arm to the
left arm |
I (one)
|
|
This gland makes epinephrine
|
Adrenal
|
|
This gland is sometimes called the
“Master Gland” |
Pituitary
|
|
This hormone is responsible for growth and maintenance of blood glucose
|
hGH
|
|
This hormone causes release of an oocyte
|
LH
|
|
This hormone increase excretion of H+ in urine
|
aldosterone
|
|
contains and releases Ca2+
|
sarcomere
|
|
Binding of this substance causes myosin to release actin
|
ATP
|
|
The average blood volume in humans
|
5 liters
|
|
the rapid response pathway of platelet activation
|
Extrinsic
|
|
Blood flows in this direction
|
High pressure to low pressure
|
|
A build up of cholesterol, macrophages and other debris in vessels
|
atherosclerosis
|
|
this is the term for excess filtered plasma
|
lymph
|
|
The pacemaker of the heart
|
SinoAtrial Node
|
|
this ECG wave represents ventricular repolarization
|
T wave
|
|
These ECG leads look at the transverse plane
|
Precordial
|
|
The term for the decay of resting membrane potential
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Pacemaker Potentail
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CO x TPR
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blood pressure
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