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164 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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When did the first intercity railway open and where? |
1830 Between Manchester and Liverpool |
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In 1860, how much of the world’s manufacturing was done in Britain? |
Over 1/4 |
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Which development by who kept British warships in the lead during mid 19th century? |
The screw propeller by Ericsson and Smith |
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How led improvements in steel production and what did this mean? |
Sir Henry Bessemer Meant Britain had an adequate supply to keep shipyards busy during naval arms race in first decade of 20th Century |
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Under who, did the navy undergo major improvements following the American War of Independence? |
Lord Howe Rear Admiral Middleton Major-General Blomefield |
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When was the American War of Independence? |
1775-83 |
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Who led the Royal Ordance and how did they improve the quality of naval guns? |
Major-General Blomefield. He saw that each naval gun had to be fired at least 30 times before being installed on a ship to prove it was soundly manufactured. Fire mechanism changed to more reliable flintlock firing mechanism. |
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What was the Flintlock firing mechanism? |
A piece of flint was struck against a piece of metal to produce a spark which would ignite the gunpowder and fire the weapon. |
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Who was behind the initiative of coppering and how did this invention affect the navy? |
Middelton Despite its cost, allowed vessels to stay at sea for longer and improved their performance. |
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When and where was the carronade first developed? |
At the Carron ironworks in Falkirk during the 1770s. |
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What was the carronade and what was it made for? |
A short cannon that fired grapeshot at short range. Designed for merchant vessels to give them something to fight back? |
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Why was the carronade useful for merchant vessels? |
Far easier to use than conventional naval guns. Could be fired from deck so didn't limit carrying capacity. Shorter barrel and wider muzzle gave it a far broader angle of fire. Quick to reload, used very little gunpowder and devastating when aimed at deck of enemy vessel. |
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What was "crossing the T"? |
A manoeuvre by which the attacking vessel would sail across the front of the enemy, so that their broadside would rake down the length of the enemy ship. Now an advantage was gained, the marines would board and capture the enemy vessel. |
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How did the carronade help the Royal Navy with their manoeuvring tactics and close quarters fighting? |
It could repeatedly fire devastating grapeshot across the deck of an enemy ship and cut to pieces anyone who got in the way so the deck would be cleared before the boarding party came on board. |
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What was the first use of the Carronade? |
1782, by Frigate HMS Rainbow, caused surrender of French ship Hebe after a short fight. |
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What happened to HMS Glatton? |
In 1795, it was overtaken by a squadron of French ships in the Indian Ocean, thinking it was easy pray. But, it was armed entirely with carronades and its fire was so damaging that each French ship had to withdraw due to damage. |
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How were carronades used in the Battle of Trafalgar? |
Two 68-pounder carronades on HMS Victory fired through stern windows of French battleship Bucentaure with such force that they cleared the top gun deck. |
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How did British naval gunnery change after the Napoleonic wars? |
Long-barrelled guns became more accurate and quicker at firing so it became better for Britain to conduct naval engagements at a distance where their superior gunnery would give them the upper hand. Short range guns like carronades became less fashionable. |
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When were carronades phased out of Royal Navy service? |
By 1851 |
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What did carronades illustrate? |
The power of grapeshot against the enemy. Not effective against structure but devastating against people. Helped with development of high explosive shells used a lot in ww1. |
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What were Grapeshots? |
A type of ammunition consisting of a collection of small iron balls in a canvas bag. |
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What is windage? |
The gap between a projectile and the inside of the gun barrel. This gap should be as small as possible so more of the explosion of gun powder is used to propel the ball rather than leaking around the sides of it. |
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How did carronades help solve the problem of windage? |
They had a much shorter barrel so the windage could be much tighter. Also, as they were all made by the same manufacturer in Falkirk, ammunition would be made to fit as tight as possible. |
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Why did windage stop being an issue? |
Rifled barrels with swirling groves cut in to the inside of the barrel in order to spin the projectile so it would travel further. more precise engineering |
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Where did the British gain experience of Rockets as weapons? |
In Southern India in 1790s. |
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How were British rockets developed? |
Examples of Indian rockets were bought back to the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich in London. They were examined and a British variant was developed by Sir William Congreve. |
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How and why did Sir William Congreve develop rockets? |
He believed manufacturing rockets could be profitable if the armed forces chose to use them. Spent a good deal of his own money on experiments. Had a working model by 1806 and allowed him to prove its practicability to the War Office, who gave him a grant to develop the rocket. |
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What was Congreve's book called, when was it published and wha did the book help with? |
A Concise Account of the origin and Progress of the Rocket System, 1807 The book helped to convince the government that it was a weapon worth investing in. |
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When did the navy and the army adopt rockets? |
Adopted from 1806 and used in small numbers in French wars |
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Describe the first successful use of rockets and why was it successful? |
Part of an attack on Boulogne. 24 small warships fired 2000 rockets at the city. Actual damage was limited but psychological effect on both the firers and target was massive. |
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What made the rocket a fearsome weapon? |
The winding unpredictable flight path, smoke and noise, and extent of damage. |
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What was the problem with rockets and which bombardment highlighted this? |
The inaccuracy of them meant that well-protected troops were unlikely to be physically affected by anything other than an improbable direct hit. Against Fort McHenry in 1814 during Battle of Baltimore in war against America, where an over 24 hour bombardment didn't achieve surrender. |
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How did the Navy use rockets? |
For ship-to-shore bombardment. Rocket rails, which the rockets were launched on, were easy to fix onboard and ships were useful for carrying large numbers of rockets. |
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What were the strengths and drawbacks of rockets for the navy? |
They had a greater range than conventional guns so ships could anchor outside gun range and use rockets to attack onshore targets, such as forts and harbours. But, their flightpath was erratic and they did not cause the same amount of damage as cannonballs. |
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Whose support kept the Rocket programme going and how? |
The Prince of Wales, lobbied both politicians and generals to push on with trials and develop the rocket for use in combat, despite generals regarding the new weapon as frivolous and unnecessary. |
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Who was the rocket Brigade formed under? |
Second Captain Bogue |
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What shows that rockets had limited success on the battlefield? |
The fact that the army did not expand use of rockets, instead staying with more traditional cannons. |
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What was the problem with storing Rockets? |
They didn't store well- they lost potency and reacted badly to extreme temperatures. |
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When were rockets used throughout the 19th Century despite issues? |
During first Burma war (1824-26) Battle of Waterloo (rocket troops also equipped with conventional cannons. Wars against New Zealand Maoris (1845-1872) |
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How and when was rocket design improved? |
1840s, British inventor William Hale patented a new rocket, which used spin to improve accuracy. This was quickly adopted by the US army but not adopted by British army till 1860s and only used in small numbers. |
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Why were rockets later in the 19th century taken out of service? |
Due to massive advances in steel artillery. |
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What was the traditional way of loading a fire weapon and what were the problems with this? |
Through a muzzle. This meant ramming the gum powder down the barrel before the projectile was placed.
This was a complex process, and having so much gunpowder igniting in the barrel, meant that the inside of the barrel would quickly become fouled and less effective. |
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What was the answer to the muzzle-loading problem and why was it better? |
To load through the breach, a hole or chamber closer to the firer.
This meant the weapon didn't need to be moved so much and the reloading process was much simpler. |
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How was breech loading artillery different?
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It needed to be self-contained in a single unit, so that the gunpowder and bullet would be loaded together rather than separately
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Who designed the first breach loading Callon in Britain and when?
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The Armstrong company in Northumberland
New design proposed to war office in 1854, and first field gun ready for army in 1858 |
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Who was Sir William Armstrong?
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An industrialist and inventor from the north east of England, who founded his own engineering company in 1847 and successfully designed and manufactured hydraulic cranes.
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What else did Sir William Armstrong do that was impressive?
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He was founder of Newcastle University.
He built the first house in the world to be powered by hydro-electricity called Cragside. He served as the high sheriff of Northumberland in 1873, and became Baron Armstrong of Cragside in 1887. Legacy of Armstrong company lives on as part of BAE Systems |
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What conflict was Armstrong inspired by in his cannon creation and what problems was it meant to overcome? |
Crimean war Slow loading time, barrel wear and poor accuracy |
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How did Armstrong's new cannon solve the problem of loading time? |
By placing the projectile in the breech. It had a screw thread on the breech so it could be screwed back into position before gun was fired. (other designs used sliding block) |
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What were the benefits of projectiles being coated in a soft metal (lead)? |
It expanded slightly when the gun was fired, and would grip inside the barrel, and put more spin on the shell.
As it was softer than the metal inside the barrel, it would not wear down the barrel as quickly. It reduced windage, so less propelling gases were lost in the gap between so less gun powder needed. |
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What was the issue with breech loading artillery?
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The gums required more maintenance, and a higher level of crew training than the army were prepared for the ammunition was more expensive.
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What are artillery did the army adopt in 1859?
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The 12-pounder breech loader |
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What impact did breech loading guns have on ship design? |
Large breech-loading guns needed to be mounted on revolving turrets on deck rather than firing out of holes on the side. |
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What was the main armament for naval destroyers in both World Wars? |
The quick fire version of the 12 pounder, adopted in 1894 |
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How did the breech-loading cannons change warfare on land? |
The killing power at the artillery led to static warfare, as men had to rely on trench systems to protect themselves from cannons.
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How did the breech-loading cannons change warfare at sea?
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It caused the switch from broadside, firing to turret mounted guns and the development of large, heavily armed battleships.
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How did breech-loading guns affect tactics? |
Signalling became very important, as they could fire much further than the gunners could see, so they had to rely on another soldier, a spotter to tell him if the fire was falling on the right spot.
Developed through flags, telephone and radio. |
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Who designed the maxim gun and when? |
Sir Hiram Maxim 1884 |
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How did the maxim gun work? |
It used the energy of the recoil to expel the used cartridge and place the next one in the breech.
The single barrel was surrounded by a water filled sleeve to stop it overheating. It needed a crew to move, but could be fired by one man on his own |
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How many rounds per minute could the maxim gun fire? |
600 |
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How was the Vickers gun better than the maxim gun?
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It was lighter more reliable, parts easier to mass produce, and it use the same ammunition as the infantry rifle. The gun and tripod were far easier to move
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How were machine guns distributed at the start of World War I?
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Two weapons were parcelled out to each infantry battalion and cavalry regiment.
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How did the use of machine guns change in 1915?
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Infantry battalions now used a light machine gun, the Lewis gun and heavier machine guns like the Vickers were reformed into the machine gun corps.
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How did the Vickers gun have a major role in the tactics of World War I?
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The rate of fire was a significant factor in the development of static warfare, as men could no longer operate in open ground without being shot by a machine gun. It meant less men were needed to hold an area as it could deliver the same fire as 40 or 50 rifleman.
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How did machine guns affect training?
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Men in machine gun units needed training beyond that of the ordinary infantrymen to strip down and clean the machine gun, so it would keep working efficiently.
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How was the idea of a tank developed? |
Idea goes back to ancient times. Industrial Revolution, creating internal combustion engines and development of tractors and cars led to consideration that a machine could be developed that could move itself, give protection against enemy fire and carry a weapon of its own. |
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Who supported the "landslips" programme initially and who was reluctant? |
The Royal Navy and first lord of admiralty Winston Churchill. Army more reluctant |
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When did the government make the "landships" programme a joint venture between the army and navy? |
June 1915 |
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Who lead the "landslips" committee? |
Eustace d'Eyncourt, the director of naval construction. |
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Who designed the tank gearbox? |
Major Walter Wilson (engineer from navy) |
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Who developed the tank's tracks and made the first prototypes? |
Sir William Tritton (industrialist) and his company William Foster & Co |
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Where did the name tank come from? |
Adopted as a security measure and leaked they were developing a water tank for use in the Middle East but the word stuck |
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What was the first working prototype of a British tank?
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Little Willie, developed in summer of 1915. Showed benefit of caterpillar tracks to move over rough terrain. |
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How did the inventors alter the design of little Willie?
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The new prototype "Big Willie" was rhomboid shaped with tracks on the outside. Lower centre of gravity prevented it from toppling over. |
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When was big Willie working by and what was it renamed?
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December 1915 "Mother" |
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What was Mark I?
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A combat-ready version of "Mother" developed during spring 1916 |
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What were the first tanks like?
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Large, cumbersome and difficult to operate. Top speed little over walking pace Needed large crews as separate man to operate each track's throttle, gears and brakes. No steering - direction determined by speed of each track Too noisy to communicate inside |
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Where did the tank make its combat debut?
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September 1916 during Somme offensive Took part in attack and helped in capture of villages |
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How many of the original 50 tanks actually made it to the start line for attack?
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24 |
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Which versions of the tank were used for 1917 and 1918?
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Mark IV and Mark V (better engines and heavier armour) |
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What were the French and German tanks called?
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French Renault FT German AV7 |
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What did the French Renault FT have?
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First revolving turret |
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What was the most successful tank action of the first world war?
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At the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917 Over 400 tanks supported infantrymen in first wave of attack. Effective in clearing barbed wire. |
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When did tanks realise their full potential?
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The Second World War |
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How were tanks use during the First World War?
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Helped infantry break through heavily defended trench systems. Utilised in combined armed assaults Provided mobile firepower through six-pound cannons and machine guns. |
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What increased the value of tanks outside of tactics?
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Shock value. Size and noise terrorised infantrymen who opposed them |
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What is meant by total war? |
Total war gets the entire population involved in the war effort and touches every aspect of everyday life. Civilians expected to accept less food, pay and work more jobs even voluntary ones in service of their country.
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How does total war maximise the war effort? |
Men of certain age conscripted into armed forces and older men pulled out of retirement or women replace their jobs in factories. Manufacture of consumer goods suspended to make war materials. |
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What total wars has Britain fought ever? |
WW1 and WW2 |
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How much did the population of Britain grow between 1800 and 1900? |
10 million to 40 million |
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When was the economic impact of WW1 felt and why not sooner? |
1920s The government marshalled people to work in essential industries so it wasn't felt on an individual level when some sectors had to lay off workers |
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What factors made people more involved in the wars as time went on? |
Improvements in communications and literacy |
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What was a promissory note and why was Britain able to pay with these? |
A piece of paper promising that a debt will be settled on demand (idea developed into paper money) Other Govs had to pay in cash but Britain was able to pay this way due to people's confidence in Bank of England |
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Why was the Bank of England founded? |
As a means by which the government could manage its debt, responsible for issuing government bonds (the way the gov borrows money) |
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What were consolidated annuities (consols) and why were they important? |
Different from standard bonds as there were no fixed period in which they had to be repaid so in theory gov wouldn't have to pay off capital investment. Investor would receive quarterly interest payments Formed only small part of gov debt but Important in moments that the gov needed money eg. Crimean war and 1920s |
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Why was Britain able to raise much more money than its enemies? |
Middle class industrialists and wealthy landowners invested in government bonds so it had an ability to borrow large amounts of money. |
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How did PM William Pitt help the economy after the American war of Independence? |
Put a series of indirect tax reforms in place that increased gov revenue. He reduced the national debt from £243 to £170 million. |
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Which policies further improved tax revenue by 1798? |
Further indirect tax reforms, suspension of gold payments from Bank of England and reduction in import duties |
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Why did Pitt impose an income tax in 1798? |
The ongoing war with France and subsidising war effort of Prussia and Austria meant that outgoings were growing far quicker than revenue |
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What was the rate of Pitt's income tax? |
2 old pence in the pound on incomes above £60 a year and 2 shillings in the pound on incomes above £200 |
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Who were affected by Pitt's income tax? |
Only wealthy businessmen or landowners as average yearly wage was well below £60. They were reluctant to pay but could afford it |
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How much money did the income tax bring in the first year and why was this less than hoped? |
£6 million It was hoped for £10 million but many avoided paying by putting their income just under £60 |
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Why was income tax suspended in 1802 and reintroduced in 1803? |
Because a peace was signed in 1802 but war broke out again in 1803 |
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Why did most colonial wars before WW1 only require a small number of troops? |
The enemy was few in number and poorly equipped and they could equip local troops to fight for them |
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Which wars 1815-1914 had required heavy gov borrowing? |
The crimean war and 2nd Boer war |
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How much did the national debt increase between 1914 and 1918? |
From £625 million to £7800 million |
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Where was money borrowed from during WW1? |
British and international institutions (mostly USA) via gov bonds offering very good return on investment Direct loans also taken from other governments (USA) |
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By 1918, what was taking up 25% of taxation income? |
Making interest payments on debt |
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What were "war bonds"? |
Investment bonds that were bought by individuals during the war, on the understanding that the gov would pay them back plus interest after the war. 5% interest Priced as low as £5 so ordinary people could afford to invest |
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What were war savings certificate accounts? |
Allowed ordinary people to buy stamps for 15 shillings and get back a pound in five years. |
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What does it show that war bonds and savings helped to raise hundreds of millions of pounds? |
The belief the British people had in the cause of the war and their trust in the government to honour their commitment to repay the debt. |
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How much did income tax increase between 1914 and 1918 and how many people were paying it? |
3.25% to 30% 1914- 1.5 million people 1918 - 7.7 million people |
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Which newly introduced tax increased to 80% by 1918? |
A tax on business profits |
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How did the Bank of England help the government in WW1? |
Stopped exchanging gold for bank notes and kept gold as emergency reserve. Issued more bank notes than it had gold to back up so the economy could continue to function |
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Who were camp followers and why were they significant? |
A large body of people with no official role in the army, but chose to follow the campaign. May be related to soldier or there for opportunity to make money eg. prostitutes. May be there for philanthropy, patriotism or curiosity. Primary avenue of interaction between armies and society |
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During the peninsular war, how many wives were allowed per company for lower ranks? |
6 (selection made by ballot) |
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What was the restriction on marriage for officers? |
Officers could only marry with the permission of their commanding officer but there was no restriction on their wives accompanying them |
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Why was the often more than the official number of wives? |
Due to a good number of unofficial camp followers such as wives who hadn't been allowed but made their own way anyway. (They weren't given rations or tents and had to fend for themselves) |
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What was often the alternative for wives who didn't follow the campaign? |
Extreme poverty was common so if a women "lost" her husband to the army she may have to go into the workhouse (a place where the destitute could receive basic food and shelter in exchange for labour) |
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Why was life extremely difficult for women before 1919? |
They had a lower legal status enforced by cultural norms. Making her way in the world would be very stressful for single women as barred from many professions. Married women were property of husbands so some security but little freedom. |
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What were the benefits of following the army for women? |
There was a ready supply of husbands. Group camaraderie of other women Possibility of making a living as always jobs needing to be down that soldiers were willing to pay for |
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Before the 20th century, who provided ancillary services? |
The army focused on fighting battles so medical care and catering were often provided by camp followers |
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Before the crimean war, who provided medical care? |
Bandsmen, who acted as stretcher bearers and the surgeon attached to each battalion. Nursing done by camp followers, which put a big strain on them |
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Why would soldiers prefer to be looked after by camp followers? |
The army attracted the worst surgeons in the country as this was not a desirable position. Bandsmen had joined the army to play music. But, wives had often been taught folk remedies from a young age. |
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Why were wives very helpful for catering? |
Soldiers were expected to cook their own rations in messes but due to gender roles only women know how to cook and cook making something palatable out of army rations. |
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Which other skill of camp followers was consistently required? |
Needle and thread Uniform and equipment was poor quality and needed constant repairs |
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How could a civilian with a grindstone make a very good living from the army? |
By sharpening officers swords |
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During the 1850s, what fraction of British service men had had a STD and why? |
1/5 Prostitutes followed around armies as a means of survival and soldiers with excess pay and time and the imminent prospect of death were far more likely to engage in the services than a man in civilian life |
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When was the Contagious Diseases Act passed and what did this mean? |
1964 Women could be examined and of found to be infected with a venereal disease, detained for 3 months Initially limited to certain ports and army towns but then extended. Controversial as didn't affect infected men |
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Why was the Contagious Diseases Act repealed and when? |
1886 Due to c campaign led by Josephine Butler as she saw it as the epitome of discrimination against women in Victorian society |
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Why were militia units formed throughout the UK in the late 18 century and what was their role? |
Due to the threat of an invasion by the French army Part-time, not eligible for foreign service, performed useful duties and served as base to recruit regulars |
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What was meant by "fencibles" and "yeomanry" cavalry units and what was their role? |
"fencibles" were temporary units that can't be sent abroad "yeomanry" were part-time soldiers They acted against civilian unrest, allowing regular units to serve abroad |
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Why were militia units given service away from their home? |
To avoid a conflict of loyalty when policing civilian unrest |
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How were militia units financed in the 1790s? |
By wealthy individuals or popular subscription |
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What was the "Peterloo massacre" and what did this cause? |
Local yeomanry unit was called to disperse a crowd in Manchester in 1819 and 11 people were killed and others injured. The press attacked the yeomanry and people began to question the relevance of the reservists |
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When did the reservists become a more structured part of the Nation's defence and how? |
When parliament passed the Militia Act in 1852, due to fear of French invasion. Provided for a force of 80,000 to be enlisted |
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When did reservists become an integral part of defence policy? |
Haldane's reforms Early 19th century |
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Which act was passed within 4 days of the declaration of WW1 and what did this mean? |
The Defence of the Realm Act Gave the gov unprecedented powers to influence almost every aspect of everyday life Big change from laissez-faire attitude |
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Which actions became an offence or prohibited in WW1 and what did this show? |
Flying a kite, buying binoculars or lighting a bonfire Trespassing on railways or talking about military affairs in public Gov was concerned about spying |
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Why was British Summer Time introduced? |
To provide more daylight for agricultural workers |
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How did the gov attempt to reduce absenteeism? |
Restricted pub opening times, told landlords to water down beer to reduce alcohol content, and not allowed to buy beers in rounds. |
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What caused the Munitions of War Act of 1915 and what did this mean? |
A rumour of a shell shortage causing outrage in Britain. Resulted in direct gov control of the munitions industry with strict rules for workers |
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How was the conduct of workers changed by the Munitions of War Act? |
Strikes prohibited Workers couldn't leave employment in war industry without written consent from employer Workers couldn't refuse a new job, regardless of pay and couldn't refuse overtime The gov could direct workers to specific industries Wages protected |
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What was "dilution"? |
Breaking down jobs of skilled workers into smaller components that could be done by unskilled workers |
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What happened to workers who went against the Munitions Act? |
Tried by special munitions tribunals |
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How was the coal and transport industry (railway and merchant) affected by gov control? |
Profits fixed to 1913 levels with any excess going directly to the treasury Continued to be run privately but nationalisation would occur if they didn't comply with gov guidelines |
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What were reserved occupations that recruiting sergeants were instructed not to recruit from in 1915 and what happened to those who had already joined up? |
Miners, shipbuilders, farmers, merchant seamen, drivers and workers in munitions Some were recalled to take their place at work as they could have a greater impact at home than on the front line |
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What allowed the release of men from reserved occupations back into the army? |
Deployment of women in industry |
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How many women worked in the munitions industry by the end of the war? |
947,000 |
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Which other industries employed many women? |
Clerical work for private firms, civil servants, transport industry |
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How much did the number of women employed increase in the war? |
Only 22.5% Most women still housewives |
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In 1914, what percentage of Britain's food was imported and what did this mean? |
60% Merchant shipping was very important to keep the island supplied |
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What caused a strain on merchant shipping? |
unrestrained U-boat warfare |
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What did poor food supplies cause by 1916? |
Shortages in shops and long queues of disgruntled people outside them and a dramatic rise in food prices |
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Which 2 measures dod the gov take to manage the food situation? |
A massive shipbuilding programme The set up of a food agency and introduction of rationing |
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What was the WLA, when was it set up and how many women joined? |
Women's Land Army (provided labour to take place of men needed to fight) 1917 Only 16,000 |
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How did the food agency aim to improve the situation? |
Encouraged livestock farmers to switch to crops like wheat Every farm under control of Board of Agriculture to ensure best use of land Wage of landowners set at national minimum to keep workers on farms |
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When was compulsory rationing introduced and which food item was not rationed? |
January 1918 Bread (cost of loaf subsidised by gov)- so a varied, rich diet wasn't possible but people wouldn't go hungry |
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How successful was gov policy on drinking? |
Very successful Beer consumption halved by 1918 Far less convictions for drunkenness |
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When were correspondents allowed access to front lines and how? |
1916 Only given carefully written statements from Army Press Bureau |
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How many private telegrams were examined by gov censors in 1916? |
300,000 |
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How many posters were printed in WW1? |
Over 50 million |
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Which propaganda film was sold to the gov and was shown in over 2000 cinemas? |
Battle of the Somme |
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What was the most effective propaganda during ww1? |
Behaviour of Germans- Zeppelin raids on civilians targets, added to exaggerated claims about babies being bayonetted or women crucified by barbaric German soldiers |
