Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
98 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are genes? |
Messages with units of hereditary information, with a blueprint for a structure for encoding a process. Comprised of short segments of DNA. Carried in chromosomes. (23 pairs) |
|
What is mitosis? |
Normal cell replication for somatic reproduction, where a single cell divides and replicates (each cell contains two sets of chromosomes). |
|
What is meiosis? |
Special process of cell division for sexual reproduction, where haploid cells (each with half the number of chromosomes as parent cell) are produced (cells only have one set of chromosomes after division). Occurs prior to formation of sperm and ova. Only in gametes. |
|
What happens at fertilization? |
When sperm cells meet egg cells, chromosomes are recombined (genes cross over) to produce a different genetic combination so each chromosome in egg and sperm material is a unique mixture of maternal and paternal DNA. |
|
What are mutations? |
Errors in the process of meiosis or mitosis (1/200 foetuses). Inversions, deletions, duplications, translocations. |
|
Describe the dominant-recessive gene principle. |
One dominant allele can override the effect of the other recessive allele. Only if both gees recessive will the influence of the recessive gene be expressed. |
|
What are alleles? |
Two alternate forms of the same gene (2 hereditary elements for each trait) |
|
What does homozygous mean? |
Alleles have the same genotype (e.g. BB) |
|
What does heterozygous mean? |
Alleles have different genotypes (e.g. Bb) |
|
What does genotype mean? |
Genetic constitution |
|
What does phenotype mean? |
Observable characteristic e.g. brown/blue eyes |
|
What is the chance of inheriting a dominant gene disorder when one parent has it? |
1 in 2 |
|
What is the chance of inheriting a recessive gene disorder when one parent has it? |
1 in 4 |
|
What is meant by 'co-dominance'? |
The effect of the recessive gene is not totally masked, so phenotype would be a compromise. |
|
Give an example of a genetic disorder with sex-linked inheritance that is typically X-linked |
- Red-green colour blindness - Haemophilia - Certain forms of deafness - Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy |
|
Give an example of a chromosomal abnormality. |
- Down Syndrome Trisomy 21 - Edward's Syndrome Trisomy 18 - Turner Syndrom (XO) - Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) |
|
True or false: chromosome abnormalities are the main cause of spontaneous miscarriage |
True |
|
Chromosomal abnormalities can be diagnosed prenatally using... |
- Ultrasound - Amniocentesis - Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) - Nuchal screening - Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis |
|
What is meant by 'reaction range'? |
A range of possible phenotypes for each genotype e.g. IQ in restricted vs. enriched environment |
|
What are some methods for studying gene-environment contributions in plants and animals? |
- experimental breeding (animal models) - selective breeding for heritable traits - genetic manipulation - insert particular variant of normal gene in cells or 'knockout' a normal gene - compare with control to determine function of manipulated genes |
|
What are some methods for studying gene-environment contributions in humans? |
- Kinship studies e.g. bipolar disorder - Twin studies - twin/adoption studies - Adoption studies - Longitudinal studies - test for genes, measure care taking, environmental factors, look for interaction effects |
|
On average, identical twins share what percentage of genes? |
100% |
|
On average, 1st degree relatives (parents and children, siblings, fraternal twins) share what percentage of genes? |
50% |
|
On average, 2nd degree relatives (half-siblings, uncle/aunty, grandparent) share what percentage of genes? |
25% |
|
On average, 3rd degree relatives (cousins) share what percentage of genes? |
12.5% |
|
What are the odds of schizophrenia in general population, or if - both parents - sibling and 1 parent - 1 parent - siblings - 2nd degree relatives - 3rd degree relatives have schizophrenia? |
1% 45% 15% 13% 10% 3% 1-2% |
|
What makes the difference between fraternal and identical twins? |
Identical twins - one fertilised ovum divides Fraternal twins - two ova are released at the same time, each fertilised by a different sperm. |
|
What are identical, monozygotic twins? |
Twins sharing 100% of genes |
|
What are fraternal, dizygotic twins? |
Twins sharing 50% of genes |
|
What are the limitations of twin designs? |
- naturalistic - can't systematically vary environment - assumption that diversifying influences of environment are no greater for fraternal than identical twins |
|
Two types of twin studies |
Same environment Different environment |
|
Two types of adoption studies |
Shared heredity - genetically related individuals in different environments Shared environment - genetically unrelated individuals in same environment |
|
Limitations of adoption studies |
- issue of selective placement confounds interpretation - no random allocation - bias in placement for similar parents (meeting criteria for eligibility, want children) - disclosure - sibling contrast effect - disclosure - timing of disclosure/emotional aspects |
|
What is epigenetics? |
study of changes in non-genetic factors causing organism's genes to behave differently - how do heredity and environment work together? |
|
What are the three different types of heredity-environment correlations? |
- passive - child passively receives correlated genes and environment - evocative - child elicits reactions from parents that lead them to provide environments correlated with the child's genes - active - child's genes lead him/her to actively seek out environmental experiences |
|
What are some pre-pregnancy risk factors associated with the physical wellbeing of the mother or father (influence sperm and eggs)? |
- maternal chronic illness - history of drug use/exposure of either parent - inadequate nutrition in childhood/adolescence - previous numerous closely spaced pregnancies - age of mother/father at time of conception - family genetic history - mutations during gamete formation |
|
What are teratogens? |
agents causing birth defects, such as drugs, x-rays, toxic chemicals |
|
What does the impact of teratogens depend on? |
-Timing (critical period in organogenesis) -Dosage & duration -Genetic make-up of child and mother -Other aspects of environment |
|
What are the three phases of prenatal development? |
1. Germinal period - conception - 2 weeks (teratogens rarely influence) 2. Embryonic period - implantation - 8 weeks (maximum susceptibility to teratogens) 3. Fetal period- 8 weeks - term (40 weeks) (less impact of teratogens, some alterations still occur) |
|
When do prenatal behaviours become present? |
12-28 weeks |
|
True or false: there is evidence that maternal stress exposure is related to irritable, active infant behaviour. |
True, but effects on infants are moderated by many other genetic and environmental variables. |
|
What are some symptoms of fatal alcohol syndrome? |
- distinctive head/facial features - heart defects - newborns are irritable, hyperactive, seizures/tremors - below average mental functioning - mental health problems |
|
What is the Barker hypothesis? |
Adult disease is linked to prenatal and early postnatal life (obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes) |
|
What are some outcomes associated with prenatal stress? |
- heightened fear and anxiety - reduced exploration & play - social withdrawal - elevated corticosterone levels |
|
True or false: the HPA axis mediates the relationship between prenatal stress and negative outcomes |
True |
|
True or false: Baby rats that are licked more often by their mother are less calm than rats that are not licked enough |
False - they are calmer |
|
True or false: rats who are cross fostered (born to low licking/grooming mothers and fostered by high licking/grooming mothers) do not have adaptive stress/fear responses as adults |
false - they do |
|
True or false: variations in maternal behaviour are responsible for individual differences in stress reactivity across generations |
True |
|
How does the maternal psychological state influence infant stress reactivity and regulation? (three points) |
1. Maternal HPA axis
2. Genes 3. Maternal sensitivity/psychological state |
|
How can the prenatal environment be enhanced? |
- talking to unborn baby - mother's diet, relaxation, health - music - establishing relationship with fetes |
|
What are two developmental risk factors within the child |
Temperament Mental illness in a parent |
|
What are two developmental risk factors within the environment? |
Uterine environment Toxin exposure during pregnancy Difficult birth, premature labor Parent's living circumstances, poverty |
|
What is the basic principle of the cumulative stress model? |
Stressors add together until a threshold is reached, above which problem outcomes will occur |
|
What are some protective factors within the child that may reduce the negative impact of developmental stressors/risks? |
Easy temperament Desired gender |
|
What are some protective factors within the environment that may reduce the negative impact of developmental stressors/risks? |
Good nutrition and health behaviours in pregnancy Economic advantages e.g. good schools Supportive responsive parenting |
|
What is the basic principle of the additive risk model? |
Developmental outcome is the result of the combined effects of stressors and protective factors |
|
What is ontogenic development? |
An individual's biological characteristics and developmental history/social context |
|
What are physical risk factors of newborns? |
Prematurity Low birth weight (linked to low SES, multiple birth) Respiratory distress |
|
What does brazelton's neonatal behavioural assessment scale assess? |
neurological capacity in newborn infants |
|
What happens in the first three months? |
neonatal capacities reflexes controlled subcortically bodily functions - crying, sleeping, reflecx responding - regulation |
|
What are the three principles underlying motor development and growth? |
1. Cephalo-caudal principle - growth/control development occurs from head downwards 2. Proximo-distal principle - muscles develop from trunk to extremities 3. Orthogenetic principle- development starts globally, initially undifferentiated and moves toward differentiation and hierarchical organisation |
|
What are six gross motor milestones, as described by Gesell and Bayley? |
1. head control in prone 2. rolling over 3. propping - crawling 4. sitting (postural stability underpins fine motor development) 5. pull to stand 6. cruise - walk |
|
What is meant by 'fine motor development'? |
Progression from reflex to voluntary |
|
What underpins fine motor development? |
Trunk stability |
|
Approximately when does an infant progress to voluntary and controlled release? |
Second year |
|
What is the maturationist view on infant development? |
Genetically programmed, universal unfolding |
|
What is meant by the 'practice/environment effect' on timing of infant development |
environment can effect learning e.g. deprived infants may take longer, some cultural rearing practices can both restrict and enhance motor development |
|
Why is motor development compromised in visually impaired children?
|
Different sensations (kinaesthetic, visual, and vestibular) are combined to inform perceptions |
|
What are the sensory organs associated with the senses? |
Mouth for sucking - first sensory focus Hands for grasping - tactile Sensory receptors (eyes, nose, ears) Vestibular system (inner ear, motion) Kinaesthesia - proprioception (going and stretch receptors) |
|
What are four ways of assessing infant perceptual abilities? |
1. preferential looking paradigms 2. habituation paradigms 3. visual cliff paradigm 4. conditioning paradigms |
|
Describe the visual abilities of newborns |
Visual acuity limited, scan edges, tend to fixate on single feature |
|
True or false: infants demonstrate visual preference for natural faces over scrambled faces |
True |
|
When can infants distinguish facial expressions? |
3-6 months |
|
At how old can neonates show preference for their mother's voice? |
4 days |
|
By what age can infants discriminate pitch, tempo, contour, rhythm, and melody? |
6 months |
|
At what age can infants distinguish between different sounds?
|
1 month |
|
True or false: olfaction is not acute at birth |
False - it is highly acute |
|
How did McFarlane and Porter's studies show that 6-day olds prefer the smell of their own mother? |
Preferential head-turning for mother's breast pad (2-day olds respond randomly) |
|
True or false: newborns can discriminate among basic taste qualities? |
True - sweet - smile, sucking - sour - lip-pursing, nose wrinkling, blinking - bitter - dislike expression, spitting, vomiting movements |
|
By what age does manual tactile exploration take over oral exploration? |
After 4 months |
|
What does recent research suggest about infants feeling pain? |
They do feel pain, but their pain threshold may be lower than for adults |
|
How do infants demonstrate intermodal exploration? |
reaching towards objects visually interested in, turning towards sounds that interest them, mouthing objects that are interesting to look at and touch classic experiment with pacifiers - look longer at dummy they've sucked on when shown pictures, suck dummy with distinctive shape/texture |
|
How many hours do infants sleep a day, on average? |
16 |
|
True or false: as infants develop, REM sleep increases |
False - it decreases |
|
What is the function of synchronised interactions between adults and children? (4 points) |
1. elicit infant attention 2. aid in behaviour organisation, state control 3. regulate info input - not overload the system 4. affirm infant's emerging sense of self/agency |
|
What did Condon and Sander's study suggest about neonate movement and adult speech? |
Neonates movements are organised with adult speech |
|
What did Trevarten's study suggest about premature babies' arm movements and adult speech? |
synchronised |
|
How have studies shown the reciprocity of adult-infant relationships? |
- Mayer and Tropic: turn-taking conversational structure of mother-infant face-to-face interaction - Mallock: companionship space through joint use of music-like qualities in vocal & body gestures |
|
What is temporal matching? |
Timing of speech matches - reciprocity seems to be innate |
|
What is energetics matching? |
Loudness matched |
|
What is physiognomic matching? |
Body movements matched |
|
What characterises stylised voices used by adults when communicating with infants? (4 points) |
Raised pitch Pitch and loudness changes are exaggerated Slow speed Long pauses between utterances |
|
What characterises stylised facial expressions used by adults when communicating with infants? (4 points) |
Exaggerated in time Exaggerated in space Repertoire limited Games e.g. peek-a-boo |
|
How did Stern describe affect attunement? |
Performing behaviours that express the quality of feeling or a shared affect state, but without imitating the exact behavioural expression of the inner state |
|
What are the four main characteristics of attunement behaviours? |
1. some form of matching 2. matching is largely cross-modal (e.g. vocalisation vs. behaviour) 3. match concerns expression of inner states 4. process occurs rapidly, largely out of awareness and almost automatically |
|
What are the most common attunement responses? |
1. vocalisations 2. facial displays 3. mixed modal |
|
What is the most common dimension of infant expression matched in attunement? |
Intensity |
|
What are the functions of attunement behaviours according to Stern? |
To commune with the baby Intersubjectivity |