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277 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Levels of structural organization |
Organism level, system level; organ level, tissue level, cellular level, chemical level |
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Systems of human body |
Skeletal, muscular, nervous |
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Regions of the body |
Head/neck, upper limb extremity, Thorax, back, abdomen Pelvis, perineum Lower limb extremity |
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Anatomical position |
Everything facing foward |
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What are the anatomical planes |
Frontal plane, transverse plane, sagittal plane |
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Superior |
Higher on the body, nearer to the head |
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Inferior |
Lower on the body, farther from the head |
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Medial |
Closer to midline |
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Lateral |
above, attaching closer to the body |
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Proximal |
above, attaching closer to the body |
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Distal |
below, attaching further from the body |
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Axes of rotation (medial-lateral) |
Flexion and extension Sagittal plane |
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Axes of rotation (superior-inferior) |
Rotation (laterally and medially) Transverse plane |
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Axes of rotation (Anterior-posterior) |
Abduction and addiction Frontal plane |
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Gliding |
Moving your wrist left and right |
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Inversion |
Bringing foot imwards |
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Eversion |
Brining foot outwards |
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Primary functions of bones and skeletal system |
Support, protection, leverage &movement, storage of minerals and lipids, blood cell production |
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Types of bones and examples |
Long(humerus) flat(sternum) sutural (found between flat bones of the skull) irregular (vertebra) Short (cube shaped) Sesamoid (patella) |
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Clavicle |
Joins axial Skelton to the appendicular skeleton Articulates with sternum and actinium of scapula |
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Sternoclavicular joint |
medial end of the clavicle articulates with the sternum, saddle joint
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What ligament is associated with the sternoclavicular joint |
Sternoclavicular ligament Interclavicular ligament Anterior sternoclavicular ligament |
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What’s on the posterior of a scapula |
Spine (most posterior) Acromion (most lateral) Infraspinous fossa Supraspinous fossa |
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What’s the lateral side of scapula |
Coracoid process (most anterior) Glenoid fossa |
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Anterior of scapula |
Subscapular fossa, Suprascapular notch |
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Scapular motions |
Elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, rotation |
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What is the acromioclavicular joint and what type of joint is it |
Connects the acromial end of the clavicle to acromion of the scapula Plain joint |
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What ligaments are associated with AC joint and their distances |
Acromioclavicular ligament Coracoacromial ligament Coracoclavicular ligament Trapezoid ligament (most lateral) Conoid ligament (most medial) |
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What is a grade 1 AC separation |
Partial tear on one ligament |
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What is a Grade 2 AC separation |
Complete tear on one ligament |
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What is a grade 3 AC separation |
Complete tear on all 3 ligaments |
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What is the glenohumeral joint and the type of joint |
Head of the humerus and the Glenoid fossa of scapula ball and socket joint |
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What is the ball and socket joint and it’s axes of rotations |
Joint which rounded surface moves within a depression of another bone Designed for mobility not stability All 3 planes and their corresponding actions |
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What ligaments are associated with the glenohumeral joint |
Glenohumeral ligament Coracohumeral ligament Coracoacromial ligament |
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What is the humeroradial joint and the type of joint |
Capitulum of humerus (distal) head of radius (proximal) Hinge joint |
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Ligaments associated with humeroradial joint |
Radial collateral ligament |
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What is the Humeroulnar joint and the type of joint |
Hinge joint Trochlea of humerus (distal) trochlear notch of ulna (proximal) |
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Ligaments associated with Humeroulnar joint |
Ulnar collateral ligament |
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What bones make up the elbow joint and the type of joint |
Humerus, ulna and radius Hinge joint |
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Which sorts of the radioulnar joint is proximal |
proximal head of radius with distal end of ulna proximal head of ulna with distal end of radius pivot joint Radius rotates about the ulna at distal aspect |
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What type of ligaments are associated with radioulnar joint |
Annular ligament |
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What is the radiocarpal joint and the type of joint |
Condyloid joint Radius articulated with scaphoid and lunate |
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What are the 4 proximal Carpal bones, starting from the most lateral (thumb) |
Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform |
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What are the last 4 distal carpal bones starting from the thumb |
Trapezium, Trapezoid, capitate, Hamate |
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How are metacarpals numbered and structured |
From 1-5 starting from thumb Organized by base, shaft, Head |
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How are most phalanges organized |
Distal, Middle, Proximal |
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Which phalanges digit doesn’t have the usual structures |
Thumb (just proximal and distal) |
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What is the metacarpophalangeal joint and it’s type of joint |
Condyloid Joint Convex metacarpal concave phalanx |
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What are the movements of thumb |
Abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, opposition, reposition |
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what are the axes of rotations for a Saddle joint |
Movements are (flexion and extension, abduction and adduction) |
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What are the movements of hinge joint |
Flexion and extension Resembling the movements of the hinge on the door |
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What makes up the Os Coxae/pelvic bones |
Ilium, ischium, Pubis |
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What is the acetabulum |
Socket of the hip joint, formed from all 3 os coxae bones |
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What is the pelvic basin formed by |
Anterior union : Pubic Symphysis Posterior union: Sacrum |
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What is the sacrum |
5 dues vertebrae, begins fusion 15-17 yrs old, finish fusion mid 20s |
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How does the male pelvis differ from female |
Larger, Heart shaped pelvic inlet, Acetabulum more lateral, Obturator formed round, Pubic symphysis longer, Pelvic outlet narrower |
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What makes up the Pubic symphysis joint |
Symphysis joint, Fibrocartilagenous pad superior and inferior Pubic ligaments, rectus abdominals and oblique reinforce |
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Sacroiliac joint |
Syndesmosis interlocking of bones strong ligaments slight gliding and rotary movements |
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What is the Hip joint/ Acetabulofemoral joint |
Head of femur and Acetabulum Ball and socket joint |
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What makes up the hip joint |
Articulate capsule Iliofemoral ligament Pubofemoral ligament Ishiofemoral ligament Acetabular Labrum |
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What is the tibiofemoral joint |
Knee joint Distal femur(Condyles) Proximal tibia (plateau) condyloid joint |
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What does the Meniscus do |
Deepen tibial plateau for femoral condyles |
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What is the patellofemoral joint |
Intercondylar groove (distal femur) Sesamoid bone (patella) Gliding joint (flexion and extension of knee) |
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Where is the Tibiofibular joint located |
Interosseous membrane (little movement) Proximal/Distal tibia Proximal/distal fibula |
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What ligaments associated with Tibiofibular ligaments |
Superior and inferior tibiofibular ligaments |
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What are the arches of the foot |
Medial longitudinal Lateral longitudinal Transverse |
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What is the keystone bone for medial longitudinal arch |
Navicular |
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What is the keystone bone for lateral longitudinal arch |
Cuboid |
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What is the keystone bone for the transverse |
Intermediate cuneiform |
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What are the arches of the foot for |
Shock absorbers and springs |
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What is the ankle joint made of |
Talocrural joint and Subtalar joint |
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What are the axes of rotations of the modified hinge joint |
Flexion and extension Sag/(ML) Rotations Trans/ (Sup/Inf) |
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What is the Talocrural joint |
Talus-medial malleolus-lateral malleous Hinge joint Plantar flexion/Doris flexion |
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What makes up the knee joint |
ACL (Anterior Cruciate Ligament) PCL (posterior cruciate ligament) MCL (medial collateral ligament) LCL (Lateral collateral ligament) Medial meniscus Lateral meniscus |
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What does the Acetabular Labrum do |
Deepen the acetabulum and hold head of femur tight to socket |
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What does the articulate disc help with |
Shock absorber |
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What does the glenoid labrum do |
Deepen glenoid fossa |
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What does your Anterior cruciate ligament prevent |
Anterior tibial translation and hyperextension |
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What does your Posterior cruciate ligament prevent |
Posterior tibial translation (flexed knee) |
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What does your Medial collateral ligament do |
Prevents valgus motion |
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What does the Lateral collateral ligament prevent |
Prevents Varus motion |
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What makes up the subtalar joint and it’s movements |
Talus+calcaneus Condyloid joint Inversion/ eversion |
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How body systems work together |
feeing, nutrients Homeostasis adaptation to environment |
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What is homeostasis |
keeping constant despite a changing environment |
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What does the hypothalamus do for homeostasis |
body's control center Receives input controls hormones |
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What do we keep constant in the body |
Nutrients / wastes, O2/ CO2levels, pH, Water / electrolytes, Temperature, Blood volume ,Blood pressure |
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What are the subdivisions of the cell |
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, Nucleus |
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What is in the cytoplasm |
cytosol, organelles |
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What is the nucleus |
chromosomes, genes |
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Is heart rate controlled by homeostasis |
No |
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Is there a nucleus in the Red blood cell, explain why or why not |
no, without the nucleus the red blood cell becomes more flexible and have more space for hemoglobin |
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How many nucleus in a regular cell |
1 |
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How many nucleus are in a muscles cell, and why or why not |
multiple, needs multiple to create protein for cell and construction |
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what is ribosomes |
make proteins, either free or attached The free ones make proteins for the cell |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth) |
calcium storage (Muscle) Steroid production (Ovaries) |
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Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough) |
Ribosomes attached protein production for export |
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Golgi complex |
Re-packages RER proteins into a vesicle that can leave the cell |
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Peroxisomes |
Oxidative enzymes, detoxify various waste products eg. Liver hepatocytes |
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Lysosomes |
sac of digestives enzymes used for repair and removal of foreign matter eat, break down and repair bacteria di eg (white blood cell) |
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What is a cytoskeleton |
acts as bone and muscle of cell |
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Three distinct elements of cytoskeleton |
Microtubles Microfilaments Intermediate filaments |
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difference between cilia and flagella |
Cilia is controlled movement while flagella just goes Cilia found on lining of trachea while flagella just on sperm |
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which one is longer, cilia or flagella |
flagella |
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Mitochondria |
site of ATP production Enzymes for TCA cycle and ETC |
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What is cellular diversity |
cells come in different shapes and sizes different lifespans organized into complex tissue and organs |
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how many different types of cells do we have |
200 |
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What does specialized functions of cell relates to |
Shape of cell Arrangement of organelles |
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What happens to cells as we age |
Lose function don't respond to stress decrease of body cells lose integrity of the extracellular components free radicals |
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What is the free radical theory |
Damage from byproducts of cellular metabolism Radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells |
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Mitochondrial theory |
decrease in production of energy weaken cells |
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Genetic theory |
proposes that aging is programmed by genes |
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Telomeres |
"end caps" on chromosomes |
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Telomerase |
prevents telomeres from degrading |
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What is the plasma membrane structure made of |
Physical barrier Gateway for exchange Communication Cell structure |
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Cell membrane: Composition |
Phospholipids -Choline head (polar) -Fatty acid tails (Non polar, creates barrier for flow) |
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Glycocalyx function |
on surface of cell cell identify cell orientation barrier for growth |
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Two types of Membrane Proteins |
Integral (transmembrane) proteins Peripheral Proteins
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Function of membrane proteins |
Ion Channels
Carrier Receptor sites Enzymes Pores Structural Cell adhesion Cell junction |
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What is the plasma membranes permeable to |
small, uncharged, nonpolar molecules |
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What moves polar molecules across Plasma membrane |
Transmembrane proteins move polar particles (Channels, carriers) |
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What do Macromolecules use to get across plasma membrane |
Vesicles |
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What is passive process and some examples |
(no energy needed) Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis |
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What is active transport and some examples |
Uses ATP Active Transport Vesicular Transport |
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Membrane Gradients |
Power movement without ATP |
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Concentration Gradient |
difference in substance concentration across a membrane |
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Electrical gradient |
difference in charge |
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Electrochemical gradient |
combination of both |
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Simple Diffusion |
Net diffusion from high to low Small Molecules (Oxygen, carbon dioxide) Steriods |
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Diffusion |
Two-way movement Consider net movement |
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What does the rate of diffusion depend on |
Temperature
Concentration gradient Diffusion distance Mass of diffusion substances |
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Diffusion across a membrane |
Permeability
Surface area Gradient Temp |
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Osmosis |
Net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient "Pulled" by non-diffusible particles |
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What determines Osmosis |
Tonicity (# of non-diffusible particles) |
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Isotonic |
solutions are the same? no net osmosis |
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Hypotonic |
Fewer non-diffusible particles |
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Hypertonic |
More non-diffusible particles |
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What is the direction water will move in |
Hypotonic to Hypertonic |
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Facilitated Membrane Transport |
Role of plasma proteins Pores, channels, carriers |
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Channel Mediated Facilitated Diffusion |
Uses protein as channel only substance moves in along concentration gradient Eg. Na+ or K+ channel |
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Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion |
Powered by concentration gradient Requires action by the carrier protein |
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Facilitated Diffusion |
Glucose Carrier |
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Active transport |
Against gradient-requires energy Must use carrier |
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Primary Active Transport |
Uses ATP to run pump Eg. Na+, K+, ATPase pump |
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Comparing Carrier-mediated Transport |
facilitated diffusion active transport |
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Co-Transport Mechanism |
Secondary active transport Powered by gradient of one solute Moves 2nd solute against gradient Eg. Symporter |
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Counter Transport |
Similar to co-transport but each molecule moves in opposite directions Eg. anti-porter |
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Vesicle Transport |
Endocytosis and Exocytosis |
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Receptor-mediated Endocytosis |
Transport of lipids into the cell Also moves Iron and antibodies |
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Phagocytosis |
The immune system response in White blood cells |
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Pinocytosis |
Most cells can move water into the cell in bulk flow |
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Epithelial Transport |
Combines both diffusion and active transport for movement Eg. Gut Kidney |
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Secondary Messenger Response |
Control of cell by chemical messengers
Specific Shape change of binding protein activates 2nd response |
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cAMP response |
Activates protein kinase |
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cAMP |
rapid amplification |
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Calcium as a messenger |
Activated IP3 causes release of Ca 2+ from ER DAG and IP3 activated enzymes |
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Calmodulin |
Protein 2nd messenger Similar to cAMP response Activates protein kinase |
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circumduction
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combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
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abduction
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movement away from the midline, frontal plane
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adduction
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movement toward the midline, frontal plane
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internal rotation
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turning the joint inward, transverse plane
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external rotation
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turning the joint outward, transverse plane
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medial rotation
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turning head toward midline |
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lateral rotation |
turning head away from midline |
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flexion |
angle is decreasing, sagittal plane |
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extension |
angle is increasing, sagittal plane |
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dorsal |
back of hands, top of feet |
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palmar |
palm |
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plantar |
bottom of feet |
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cranial |
cranium, skull closer to head |
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caudal |
tailbone towards the tail |
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ventral |
front, in animals |
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dorsal |
back, in animals |
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anterior |
front of the body |
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posterior |
back of the body |
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superficial |
most outer layer, skin is superficial to bone |
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deep |
deepest layer, bone is deep to the muscles |
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median plane |
divides the body into equal left and right halves |
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coronal plane |
divides body into front and back |
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horizontal plane |
dividing body into top and bottom portions |
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elevation |
raising a body part |
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depression |
bring down, resting/anatomical |
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protraction |
hands coming together |
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retraction |
hands going out |
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pronation |
hands facing down |
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supination |
hands facing roof |
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What does the radius rotate about at the distal aspect? |
ulna |
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normal curvature |
cervical 2* thoracic 1* lumbar 2* sacral 1* |
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How many vertebrae in the cervical spine |
5 |
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How many vertebrae in the thoracic spine
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12 |
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How many vertebrae in lumbar spine |
5 |
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How many segments in the sacrum
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5 |
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How many segments in the coccyx
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4 |
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secondary |
2 degrees |
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primary |
1 degree |
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Scoliosis |
abnormal lateral curvature and rotation of the vertebrae side-to-side |
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kyphosis |
increased thoracic curvature hunchback |
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lordosis |
increased curving of the spine inward or forward in the sagittal plane, stomach goes outwards |
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Cervical spine |
Transverse foramen (passage of vertebral arteries) Bifid spinous process |
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Atlas (C1) |
No body (facet for dens)
No disc Articulates w/ Occipital condyles |
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Axis (C2) |
Body & Odontoid process
No disc |
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Craniovertebral joints (Atlanto-occipital joint) |
Atlas and occipital bone of skull Allow “yes” movement Supported by Alar ligament |
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Craniovertebral joints (Atlantoaxial joint)
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Atlas and axis
Allow “no” movement Supported by transverse ligament |
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Thoracic Spine |
Costal (rib) facets on body (Facets T1, T10, T11, T12) (Demifacets T2-T9) Facet of transverse process Long, slender spinous process |
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`Costovertebral joints |
Costovertebral joints Head of rib articulates with costal (demi)facet(Synovial joint) (Radiate ligament) Tubercle of rib articulates with transverse facet (Costotransverse ligament) |
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Lumbar spine |
Lumbar spine
Short, blunt spinous process Thin transverse processes Large vertebral body |
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Sacrum and coccyx |
Sacrum is 5 fused vertebrae
(Ala (wings) articulate with ilium) Coccyx is 4 fused vertebrae (Vestigial tail) (Provides anchor for spinal cord) |
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Intervertebral (IV) joints |
Symphysis joint designed for weight bearing
IV discs provide strong attachment between vertebrae (Act as shock absorbers) (Annulus fibrosus) (Nucleus pulposus) |
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IV disc path |
Annular tears Disc herniation |
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Zygapophyseal (facet) joints |
Joints between superior and inferior articular processes
Synovial plane joints Articular processes of regional vertebrae orientated differently to allow for specific movements |
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Movements of vertebral column |
(Extension and flexion) (lateral bending) (rotation of head and neck, rotation of upper trunk, neck, head) |
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Genes |
Units of hereditary segments of DNA |
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Locus |
location or point of a gene |
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Somatic cell |
46 chromosomes (diploid) 2 sets of 23 one set from each parent |
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microtubules
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build and rebuild quickly, transport secretory vesicles, form mitotic spindle during cell division
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microfilaments
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smaller than tubules and made by ribosomes, contractile system, mechanical stiffeners
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intermediate filaments
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help resist mechanical stress, keratin
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membrane permeability
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selectively permeable, permeable to: small, uncharged, non-polar molecules
transmembrane proteins move polar particles with channels and carriers macromolecules use vesicles |
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Which cells divide repeatedly |
short interphase, skin, blood cells, cheek cells, stem cells
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Which cells stay alive but don't divide |
muscle and nerve
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Cells divide infrequently |
Bone |
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What do chromosomes prepare for cell divison |
DNA is replicated chromosomes are condensed Each duplicated chromosome has 2 sister chromatids |
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Interphase |
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases
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Mitosis |
chromatids splits 2 equal cells stage of the cell cycle when a cell is actively dividing |
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G1 phase |
Cell grows, multiplies organelles, is active
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S phase |
Cell synthesizes DNA |
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G2 phase |
cell grows, centrioles replicate |
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prophase |
first and longest phase of mitosis, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear wall degenerates, centrosomes start to move apart
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prometaphase
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nuclear envelope disappears, spindles from chromatids to centrosomes, kinetochore proteins appear
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kinetochore microtubules
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move chromatids toward opposite ends of the cell
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metaphase
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centromeres line up at the middle plate, mitotic spindles start to form
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anaphase
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centromeres split, sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell
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telophase
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mitotic spindles dissolve, chromosomes become chromatin, new nuclear membrane forms
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cytokinesis
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divisions of cytoplasm, cleavage furrow pinches cell in two, new cells
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nonkinetechore microtubules |
overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell
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cancer cells |
no density-dependent inhibition, do not respond to body's control mechanisms no anchorage dependence, form tumors |
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G1 checkpoint |
Nutrients sufficient Cell size big enough DNA undamaged |
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Two types involved in cell cycle control |
Cyclins and cyclins-dependent kinases |
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What do cyclins and cdks (cyclins-dependent kinases) form |
MPF (maturing promoting factor) triggers mitosis |
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Density dependent Inhibiton |
crowded cells stop dividing |
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Anchorage dependence |
Cells must be attached to substratum to divide |
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Meiosis |
Sexual reproduction Produces a haploid set of chromosomes chromosomes replicate once 2 cell divisions |
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Meiosis I |
diploid to haploid, separates homologous chromosomes
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Meiosis II |
separates sister chromatids
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Crossing over |
prophase 1, increases genetic variability, produces chromosomes that carry genes from two different parents
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Independent assortment |
each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
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Genetic variability |
independent assortment, crossing over, random fertilization, produce a zygote with any of about 64 trillion diploid combinations
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meiosis malfunction
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abnormal chromosome count:
-failure of homologous pairs to separate during meiosis 1 -failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis |
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genetic malformations
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-deletion -duplication -inversion -reciprocal translocation
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multiple alleles
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A gene that has more than two alleles
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Punnett square |
determines probability of inheriting trait |
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Phenotype |
shown trait |
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Genotype |
alleles |
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Which traits are determined by allele pairs |
ear lobe shape taste sensation rolling tongue freckles |
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Homozygous |
same genes either dominant or excessive |
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Heterozygous |
Differing genes Dominant trait is displayed |
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Co dominance |
situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways
(Blood types) |
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Incomplete dominance |
Cases in which one allele is not completely dominant over another, blend of the alleles results
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Test cross |
determine genotype if you have a dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype |
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blood types
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A, B, AB, O
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blood type A
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A antigens, B antibodies |
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blood type B |
B antigen, A antibody |
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blood type AB
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A and B antigens and no antibodies (universal recipient)
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blood type O |
universal donor, no antigens
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dihybrid cross
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A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene, produces 4 phenotypes, each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation
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pleiotropy
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The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects
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polygenic traits
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traits controlled by two or more genes
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Huntington's disease
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Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 35-40
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sex-linked traits
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most are recessive and affect males more, dominant on x affect females more
color-blindness hemophilia baldness |
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Recessive disorders |
show up only in induvial homozygous for the allele |
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Carriers |
Are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal |
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Pedigree Analysis |
family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations
Inheritance patterns of traits can be traced |
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Sex linked genes |
genes on the sex chromosome |
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Dominant allele |
determines the organisms appearance |
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Recessive allele |
has no noticeable effect on organism unless genotype is homozygous recessive |
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P generation |
The true-breeding parents |
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F1 generation |
hybrid offspring of the P generation |
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F2 generation |
When F1 induvial self-pollinate |
