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117 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
prescriptive rules
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rules of condemned usage (e.g. don't split an infinitive), irrelevant to study of linguistics
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descriptive rules
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general statement of systematicity in language, observable patterns that languages follow, representations of native speakers' linguistic knowledge
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"code model" of communication
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speaker's thought --(encoding)--> says message ----> hears message
--(decoding)--> hearer's thought too simple because it neglects context and inference |
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context
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includes physical environment, participants, social setting, prior discourse, and cultural norms and expectations; makes things go without saying
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inference
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the conveyed message is not identical with or goes beyond what is literally said
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speech acts
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an action carried out through language; 6 types: representatives, questions, commissives, declarations, expressives, verdictives, directives
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representatives
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represent a state of affairs, are either true or false; e.g. assertions, statements, claims, hypotheses
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commissives
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commit the speaker to a course of action; e.g. promises, threats, vows
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declarations
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result in the state they name; e.g. blessings, hirings, firings, baptism, arrest, marriage
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expressives
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indicate the speaker's attitudes; e.g. greetings, apologies, thanks, condolences
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verdictives
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make assessments or judgements; e.g. appraisals, assessments, convictions
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directives
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intended to get the addressee to carry out an action; e.g. commands, requests, challenges, invitations
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locution
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what is said, the literal meaning of the words
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illocution
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what is meant, what the speaker tries to convey with the words
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Grice's cooperative principle
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speakers cooperate, even when they argue; all speakers design their utterances in accordance with certain norms of talk and can expect others to as well
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Grice's maxims
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how people cooperate in speech; 4 maxims: quantity, relevance, manner, quality
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maxim of quantity
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say enough, but not too much
e.g. "do you have any pets?" "I have two cats" -> I have two and no more than two cats and no other pets |
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maxim of relevance
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be relevant
e.g. "Do you have any pets?" "I'm allergic" -> No, I don't have any pets, and I assume you'll wonder why so I'll just tell you it's because I'm allergic |
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maxim of manner
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be orderly
e.g. giving directions in the order you'll take them |
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maxim of qality
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say what you believe to be true; telling the truth as the default makes it possible to achieve communication effects with obviously untrue statements (i.e. sarcasm)
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indirect speech act
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a speech act that involves an apparent violation of the cooperative principle but is in fact indirectly cooperative; difference in locution and illocution
e.g. "Is the boss in?" "The light's on in her office." |
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direct speech act
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a speech act in which the locution and illocution coincide
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implicature
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the meaning which is inferred from the fact that a maxim is flouted
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corpus
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'body' of data
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turn taking
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idea that conversations consist of turns during which the speaker "holds the floor"; we get the floor through cues such as falling intonation, eye gaze/body movement, or a pause
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backchanneling
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when someone speaks without intending to take the floor; signal that the hearer is paying attention; e.g. yeah or okay
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adjacency pairs
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a pair of turns produced by two speakers; they are contiguous, ordered, and matched; sometimes the contiguous requirement is violated with an insertion sequence ("where's the milk?" "the skim milk?" "yeah." "on the counter.")
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repair
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trying to fix something that was said; can be self-initiated or other-initiated
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metaphor
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understanding one thing in terms of another; mapping of concepts from one semantic domain onto another domain; helps us understand complex phenomena; e.g. WAR IS ARGUMENT
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metonymy
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referring to one entity by means of another, related entity; the two entities are semantically contiguous; part for whole, cause for effect, producer for product
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meronymy
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part-whole relation; e.g. engine is a meronym of car
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prototype
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the best, clearest example of a category; combines all of the typical features; results from frequent exposure
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prototype theory
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categories are organized around prototypes; to be included in the category some but not all of the characteristic features must be present; category membership is a matter of degree; members resemble each other, but are not equally good representatives
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mental lexicon
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where speakers "get" their words from when tehy talk
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referential meaning
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a words literal meaning; denotation
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social meaning
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information about the speaker's background or the context
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affective meaning
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information about the speaker's emotions or attitude
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lexicon
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the list of all words and morphemes stored in a native speaker's memory; this internalized dictionary includes all nonpredictable information about lexical items
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hyponymy
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type relation; e.g. car is a hyponym of vehicle
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antonymy
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opposite meanings; can be gradable (e.g. rich-poor) or non-gradable (e.g. even-odd)
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converseness
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reciprocol relationship between two words; e.g. husband-wife
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synonymy
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two forms with the same meaning
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homonymy
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one form with multiple unrelated meanings; e.g. bank - place where you take your money or the area next to a river
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polysemy
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one form with multiple related meanings; e.g. summit - top of a hill or the meeting of top people in power
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homography vs. homophony
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homographs are homonyms that are spelled the same, while homophones are homonyms that sound the same but are spelled differently
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content words
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open class; words with a definite meaning; can be formed via morphological processes
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function words
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closed class; grammar words; CAPPA: Conjunctions Articles Prepositions Pronouns Auxiliaries
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deixis
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a situation in which the words take their meaning completely from context and mean nothing without the contextual information.
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spatial deixis
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context depends on where it is said; e.g. here or there
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temporal deixis
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context depends on when it is said; e.g. now, today, or yesterday
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personal deixis
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context depends on who says it; e.g. I, we, or you
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semantic role
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the way in which the referent of the noun phrase contributes to the state, action, or situation described by the sentence
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agent
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responsible initiator of an action
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patient
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the entity that undergoes a certain change of state
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experiencer
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that which receives a sensory input
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instrument
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the intermediary through which an agent performs the action
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cause
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any natural force that brings about a change of state
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recipient
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that which receives a physical object
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benefactive
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that for which an action is performed
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locative
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the location of an action or state
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temporal
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the time at which the action or state occurred
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morpheme
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smallest meaningful unit in language; cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts
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free morpheme
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can stand alone as a complete word
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bound morpheme
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cannot stand on its own as a complete word; must attach to another morpheme
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stem
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typically a free morpheme; the core of the word to which other morphemes attach; carries the main semantic content
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affix
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bound; the morphemes which attach to a stem; 4 types: prefix, suffix, circumfix, infix
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prefix
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attaches to the beginning of the stem
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suffix
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attaches to the end of the stem; sometimes alters teh spelling of the stem
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circumfix
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goes around teh stem; rare, does not exist in modern English
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infix
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inserted into the stem; rare in the world's languages
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bound stems or cranberry morphs
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stems that aren't actually free morphemes; e.g. cran in cranberry
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inflectional morpheme
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bound morpheme that creates variant forms of a word to mark its syntactic function in a sentence
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derivational morpheme
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morpheme that derives a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning
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reduplication
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all or part of a stem is repeated
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degrees of synthesis
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indicates number of morphemes per word
isolating - one synthetic - multiple but one stem polysynthetic - multiple stems |
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degrees of fusion
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indicates number of meanings per morpheme
agglutinating - one fusional - multiple |
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word formation processes
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affixation, compounding, zero-derivation, clipping, blending, acronym, initialism, backformation, and borrowing
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affixation
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4 kinds: prefix, suffix, infix, or circumfix; adding an affix to change the meaning
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compounding
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putting existing words dogether to create new words; e.g. blackbird
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zero-derivation
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changing what word class it belongs to without changing it's structure; to noun a verb
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clipping
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shortening a word and keeping the meaning; e.g. examination --> exam
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blending
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combining two words; e.g. smoke + fog = smog
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acronym
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shortenings in which the initial letters of an expression are joined and pronounced as a word; e.g. NASA
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initialism
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shortenings in which the initial letters are pronounced as individual letters; e.g. FBI
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backformation
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e.g. creating pronunciate from pronunciation
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bound stems or cranberry morphs
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stems that aren't actually free morphemes; e.g. cran in cranberry
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inflectional morpheme
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bound morpheme that creates variant forms of a word to mark its syntactic function in a sentence
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derivational morpheme
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morpheme that derives a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning
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reduplication
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all or part of a stem is repeated
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degrees of synthesis
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indicates number of morphemes per word
isolating - one synthetic - multiple but one stem polysynthetic - multiple stems |
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degrees of fusion
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indicates number of meanings per morpheme
agglutinating - one fusional - multiple |
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word formation processes
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affixation, compounding, zero-derivation, clipping, blending, acronym, initialism, backformation, and borrowing
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affixation
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4 kinds: prefix, suffix, infix, or circumfix; adding an affix to change the meaning
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compounding
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putting existing words dogether to create new words; e.g. blackbird
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zero-derivation
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changing what word class it belongs to without changing it's structure; to noun a verb
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clipping
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shortening a word and keeping the meaning; e.g. examination --> exam
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blending
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combining two words; e.g. smoke + fog = smog
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acronym
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shortenings in which the initial letters of an expression are joined and pronounced as a word; e.g. NASA
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initialism
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shortenings in which the initial letters are pronounced as individual letters; e.g. FBI
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backformation
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e.g. creating pronunciate from pronunciation
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borrowing
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using words from other languages; e.g. quesadilla or tsunami
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constituent
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syntactic unit that functions as part of a larger unit within a sentence; verb phrase, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase
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constituency tests
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substitution test (constituents can be substituted by a single word); question test (can you replace it with a question word, and then answer the question with that exact phrase?)
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lexical ambiguity
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same word has different meanings
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structural ambiguity
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different meanings caused by different possible syntactic parsings by PS rules
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garden path ambiguity
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type of structural ambiguity in which the beginning of a sentence suggests a different structure than the complete sentence
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phrase structure rules
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rules that describe the composition of constituents in underlying structure; e.g. S --> NP (AUX) VP
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subject
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a noun phrase immediately dominated by S in a phrase structure
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direct object
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the noun phrase in a clause that, together with the verb, usually forms the verb phrase constituent; the object NP is immediately dominated by the VP
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indirect object
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daughter of VP, sister of V; precedes direct object
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oblique
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prepositional object; NP that is not a subject, direct object, or indirect object
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passive
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Bob polished the car. --> The car was polished by Bob.
1) switch OBJ NP and SUBJ NP 2) insert form of passive auxiliary be 3) mark new OBJ NP with by |
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yes/no question
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Bob has polished the car. --> Has Bob polished the car? or Bob polished the car. --> Did Bob polish the car?
switch SUBJ NP and AUX; possibly preceded by insertion of form of auxiliary do |
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wh-question
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Bob polished the car. --> What did Bob polish?
1) insert form of auxiliary do 2) switch SUBJ NP and AUX 3) replace OBJ with wh-PRO 4) move wh-PRO to the front |
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SUB-AUX inversion
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switching SUBJ NP and AUX
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do-support
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insertion of form of auxiliary do
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wh-movement
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moving wh-PRO to the front
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