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80 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Coral Reef Characteristics
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-like shallow water
-very productive ecosystems -600 mi^2 of earth's surface -contain 4-5% of all species -1/2 of Ca runoff taken up by coral reefs -Nigerian of class anthrozoa --> secrete calcium carbonate (need zooanthellae --> symbiotic algal cells) |
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Limiting Factors in Tropical Communities
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-sunlight for dinoflagellates limites depth (~50-70 m)
-temperature above 23-25 degrees C -low sedimentation -need salinity (32-35 psu) |
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Polyps
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colonies of animals with individual polyps
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Sclerosepta
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provide structural integrity, protection, and an increased surface area for the polyp’s soft tissues, extend upward from the basal plate and radiate outward from its center
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Budding & Fragmentation
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asexual reproduction
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Atoll
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-oldest forms of reefs
-reminant of volcanic areas -Indo-Pacific Ocean -encircles a lagoon |
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Barrier Reef
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-a reef separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep lagoon
-mostly in Indo-Pacific region |
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Fringing Reef
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-a reef that is directly attached to a shore or borders it with an intervening shallow channel or lagoon
-most common reef type -found in tropical areas |
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Coral Reef Organisms
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-Tridacna
-Soft Coral -Sponges --> encrusted; some dangerous & have bright warning colors -Star Fish -Fire Coral -Algal Ridge --> forms on part that touches air --> mostly red algae |
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Atlantic Coral Reef
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-Mostly young
-usually less than 10,000 years old |
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Indo-Pacific Reefs
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-old reefs (~60 million years old)
-Pocillophora, Pavona, Goniopora --> genera found in Indo-Pacific but not in the Atlantic |
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Differences Between Atlantic & Indo-Pacific Reefs
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-Mollusk/Bivalve species --> 1,200 Atl; 5,000 Indo-Pac
-Reef Fish species --> 600 Atl; 2,000 Indo-Pac -Seafans --> High Number in Atl; almost non Indo-Pac -Algal Ridges --> Not in Atl -Giant Clams --> Not in Atl -Soft Corals --> none in Atl; Numerous in Indo-Pac -Clown Fish --> Not in Atl -Coral Activity --> Night in Atl; Day in Indo-Pac -Major Grazers --> starfish in Atl; fish in Indo-Pac -Attols --> Not in Atl |
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Attol
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-High Productivity (1,500 - 5,000 g C/m^2/yr)
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Coral Reef Competition
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-extend digestive filaments
-secrete mucous --> can be toxic to surrounding coral or predators |
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Coral Reef Predation
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-Crown of Thornes
-Fish --> puffers, butterfly fish, trigger fish, surgeon fish, parrot fish (all grazers of coral) -separate fish at day & night --> usually different feeding & active times -usually stay in one location; not big on travelling |
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Mangrove Forest Characteristics
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-a lot of smaller fish & invertebrates
-bivalves & worms -lots of mud -parrot fish |
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Red Mangroves
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-Rhizophora
-out in true salt water -in sand -block out slat from cytoplasm -reproduce by dropping seedlings in water |
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Black Mangroves
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-not in open water
-in more muddy & still water -have pneumatophores to get oxygen to roots in anoxic mud -salt glands on underside of leaves |
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Equinox
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spring tide rises extraordinarily high
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Tarpon Breathe?
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gulp air in mangroves
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Meiofauna
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-microorganisms that live in the benthic regions of ocean
-rocks, sands, sediment, etc.) |
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Interstitial Space
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space in between sedimentary particles (grains of sand, etc.)
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Endobenthic
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organisms move within sediment by displacing particles
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Mesobenthic
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organisms move & live within interstitial space
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Interstitial Fauna Meiofauna
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-Grain/Sediment Size
--> smaller grains = less O2, smaller ogranisms --> larger grains = more O2, more water movement -Temperature --> further down in sediment = more stable temp -Salinity -Wave Action --> meiofauna are easy prey in open water |
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Meiofauna Taxa
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-Ciliate Protozoans --> slender; wormlike
-Turbelliam Flatworms -Annelids --> polychaetes & oligiochaetes -Nematodes --> abundant & diverse -Gastrorichs --> numerous in marine sediment -Tardigrades (water bears) --> extreme survivors (drying, temp, etc.) -Kinorhyncha -Crustceans --> copepods -Ostracods |
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Meiofauna Adaptions
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-Size --> small to fit in sediment (smaller are more represented)
-Body Shape/Form --> flattened; vermiform (elongated); streamlike -Adhesive Organs --> keep organism adhered to sediment -Claws/Hooks --> crustaceans & tardigrades -Statocyst --> gravity detection system for location in sediment |
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Temporary (Meiofauna)
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-often juveniles of macrofauna
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Permanent (Meiofauna)
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-low egg production --> because they are small
-live entire life in sediment |
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Reproductive Adaptations (Meiofauna)
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-Direct Fertilization --> some copepods
-Spermatophores --> some polychaetes; mollusks -Hermaphrodism --> gastrorichs, some hydroids/polychaetes -Brood Protection |
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Ecology (Meiofauna)
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-1,000,000 meiofaunal organisms in 1 square meter
-copepods & nematodes most abundant -total abundance/biomass highest in intertidal & decreases as depth increases -Seasonal Variance |
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Vertical Zonation (Meiofauna)
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-95% organisms found in upper 7cm
-Affected by oxygen, predation, salinity, & temperature -Thiobias --> anoxic layer (ciliates) |
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Vertical Migration (Meiofauna)
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-triggered by changes in predation, oxygen, salinity, & temperature
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Herbivores (Meiofauna)
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-copepods
-ostracods |
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Predators (Meiofauna)
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-some nematodes
-turbellarians -tardigrades -hydroids |
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Detrivores (Meiofauna)
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-gastorichs
-nematodes -ploychaetes |
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Predator/Prey Interaction (Meiofauna)
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-Bubbler Crabs --> filter through sediment (sand) to eat meiofauna
-Wadding Birds --> often feed on meiofauna at low tide -Gobies, grunts, sockeye salmon, & other benthic feeding fishes -grass shrimp |
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Sampling Meiofauna
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-Coring --> tube through sediment; able to see stratification
-Osmotic Shock --> put sample in fresh water, or do something to get organisms to move/migrate -62 micron sieve -Elutriation --> pour sample in funnel & small organisms float to top & get sucked up |
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Species Richness & Distribution (Meiofauna)
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-as many as 70 species live in 50 cm^2
-distributed worldwide -no gradient in species abundance & diversity from equator to poles (equal) |
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Symbiosis
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close relationship/interaction between different species
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Commensalism
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-commensal & host
-one benefits & other is not harmed |
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Inquilinism
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sharing a home or internal part of body
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Mutualism
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-both species benefit
-ex. cleaner shrimp --> shrimp get food & fish/eel gets cleaned |
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Symbiosis vs. Parasitism
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-one species lives in or on another
-parasite gains nourishment/protection -harmful to host (ex. lamprey) |
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Algae & Animals
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-Autotrophic unicellular algae/chloroplasts & marine invertebrates
-occur in photic zones, primarily subtidal & intertidal -Tropical>Temperate>Polar |
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Zooxanthellae
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-Common Algae
-Brown algae (dinoflagellates) -Associated w/ protista, sponges, jellyfish |
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Zoochlorellae
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-Green Algae
-Associated with cnidaria, & protista |
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Cyanellae
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-blue green algae/cyanobacteria
-Associated with porifera & protista |
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Origin
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-ingestion of algal cells/chloroplast by host
-Cryptic Symbiosis --> algae lost cellular integrity --> appears as part of host |
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Cryptic Symbiosis
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-algae lost cellular integrity
-appears as part of host -EXAMPLES -Protista -Porifera (sponges) -Cnidarians (jellyfish) -Ascidians (sea squirts) -Antozoa (Coral) -Tridacna Clams -Gastropods -Flatworms |
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Animal Symbiosis
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-Commensalism (Epizoites/Endozoites)
-EXAMPLES -Eurchin has shrimp living on spiines for protection; also some fish live in spines -Crab attaches anemones to claws to gather food particles (takes some & leaves some for anemones) -Wrasse (cleaner fish) -Hermit Crab attaches anemone to shell & uses it as protection -Clown Fish live in anemones --> develop mucous as the grow to tolerate sting of anemones & use it for defense -Lybia Tesselata & anemones (crab with anemones) -Portuguese Man-of-War --> has symbiotic relationship with organisms in tenticles |
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Commensalism
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-Epizoites --> live on host
-Endozoites --> live inside host |
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Bioluminescence
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-Symbiosis between squid, fish, tunicates, & luminescent bacteria
-Bacteria obtain nutrients from host -Host uses light for mating, defense, & attraction of prey |
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Seasonal Seas
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-Most productive seas on Earth
-Border temperate climates zones -Shrimp swarms in Alaska --> feast for incoming Salmon --> eaten by Salmon Sharks -Killer Whales --> hunt N. Atlantic herring using echo location --> use water pressure waves from tail to stun fish -Diving Birds --> force herring into defensive ball near surface --> allows for easy predation by birds & yellow tail rock fish |
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Exxon Valdez
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-large oil spill in Prince William Sound
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Human Factors Affecting Oceans
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-Commercial Fishing
-Global Warming -Chemical Pollution -Fish Farming |
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Marine Fisheries
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-source of protein for humans (85 million metric tons of 10% of protein consumed)
-Continental Shelf --> highest primary productivty --> most accessible --> easiest to fish --> 7% of total ocean, but 90% of fishing done there |
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Commercial Species
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-Herring, Sardines, Anchovies
-Cod, Pollock, Haddock -Mackerel -Tuna -Shrimp -Squid -Clams, Oysters, Mussels -Salmon -Flatfish -Whales |
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Sustainable Yield
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-How much we can take without depleting the species
-Max = 60-100 million tons -Based on primary productivity, breeding stock, & predator consumption -Most fisheries are at max or overfished |
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Overharvesting
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-Production has declined in 13 of 15 major marine fishing areas
-Catch declined 12-64% in some areas -Catch worth $70 billion, but costs $124 billion to complete (government funded) -Has lowered max sustainable yield for many species |
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Ecosystem Overfishing
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-Harvest mortality
-Physical impact of fishing gear --> impacts on environment, predation, and competition -Bycatch --> all leads to decline in mean trophic level |
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Ecosystem (Fishing)
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-skews community composition
-often removes tip predator -loss of species richness (ex coral reef) -bycatch -ghost fishing |
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Bycatch
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-non-target organisms inadvertently caught & killed
-shrimp fishing --> nearly 80% is bycatch |
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Ghost Fishing
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-lost net or gear continues to catch & kill fish
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Pollack, Haddock, & Cod fishing
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-catch & process fish on large ships
-Cod fisheries in Atlantic decimated by 1970's from overfishing -Large % of pollack & haddock fishing done on huge factory ships -ships can take up to 100 tons of fish in one net full |
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Squid Fishing
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-catch squid on jig lines & reel them in
-usually done automatically throughout night |
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Salmon
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-primarily Pacific Salmon fished
-Highly regulated in US --> fishing ok in Alaska due to strict regulations -Can be sustainable if controlled -Fueled by high sales price --> being hurt by fish farming |
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Whaling
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-1.3 million whales taken in 60 years of Antarctic whaling
-Many whale species are endangered due to overharvesting |
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Whaling Regulations
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-Jurisdiction extends 200 miles for coastal nations
-International Treaties & Commissions --> some successful, but many fail (ex. International Whaling Commission) |
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New Fisheries
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-Krill --> great & sustainable source of protein for humans
-Blue Whiting --> continental slopes -Antarctic Squid -Indian Ocean Fisheries |
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Mariculture
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-Aquatic Farming/Farming of Marine Organisms
-Salmon, mullet, yellow tail, flatfish -Shrimp/prawns -Mollusks/oysters/mussels (farmed on artificial frames) -Fish farmed in pens -Marine plant & algae fields |
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Risks of Mariculture
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-waste produced by fish
-fish escape & compete/transmit diseases in communities that they don't belong in -High degree of diseased fish in confined pens -genetically modified -predator control around pens --> shoot & kill predators -use drugs, growth hormones, & herbicides which affect surrounding environment |
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Pollution (Oil)
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-tanker accident & drilling rigs --> Exxon Valdez (260,000 barrels of crude oil spilled)
-oil kills birds, marine mammals, intertidal zone organisms, & fish -Data suggests ecosystem recovers much slower than expected |
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Sewage & Garbage
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-LA discharges 330 million gallons of sewage a day
-Garbage islands collect due to currents -Sewage highly alters community structure -Oahu, HI |
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Chemical/Radioactive Waste
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-PCB's, Mercury, DDT, Industrial Waste Products
-Biological Magnification --> chemical concentration increases in animal tissue as trophic level increases -Nuclear Weapons --> fallout -Nuclear Power Plants --> waste dumping & accidental release |
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Thermal Pollution
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-Plants discharge hot water used to cool plants back into ecosystem
-affects species -limits diversity -promotes algae growth -disturbs community composition |
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Eutrophication
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-release of excess nutrients into coastal waters
-creates "dead zones" --> anoxic areas, seasonal -Approx. 400 dead zones worldwide (ex. Gulf of Mexico at mouth of Mississippi River) |
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Invasive/Introduced Species
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-oysters
-striped bass -invertebrates -algae -ship ballasts --> carry non-native species/organisms -invasive species --> outcompete native species -alters community & ecosystem |
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Global Climate Change
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-Ice Cap Melting --> could raise oceans 5-10 feet
-Warming Water Temperatures --> klll coral reefs & limit species richness |
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The Coast Video
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-must be able to survive extreme change
-Marine Iguanas of Galapagos --> only sea going creatures (use claws to grip rocks) -Crab Island - Australia & Ascension Island - Atlantic --> traditional sea turtle breeding grounds -Newfoundland --> Capin swim onto beach to lay eggs -Sea Lions --> hunt penguins -Humpback whales --> feed on plankton near Alaska -Walrus --> skin turns from white to pink on land because blood vessels dialte -Killer Whales --> eat sea lion pups near shore |