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248 Cards in this Set
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- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
Chocolate agar. |
Growth for Neisseria and Haemophilus. |
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Loffler's medium. |
Growth for Corynebacterium diphtheriae. |
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Maneval's stain. |
Klebsiella pneumoniae. |
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Dorner's/spore stains. |
Bacillus and Clostridium. |
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Acid-fast stain/Ziehl-Neeson method. |
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and leprae (because of high lipid mycolic acid in cell wall). |
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Neisser's stain. |
Granules. |
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Selective media. |
Promotes growth of desirable microbes and inhibit the growth of others. |
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Cetrimide agar (what media and what for?).
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Selective media for Pseudomonas aeruginosa (G-negative). Has cetrimide (desinfectant). |
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Sabourauda agar (what media and what for?). |
Selective media for fungi isolation (e.g. Candida albicans and Apergillus niger). Has antibiotic and low pH. |
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What are differential media? |
Substances that cause some bacteria to take on a different appearance. |
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Chapman agar (mannitol). |
Differential media for Staphylococcus. |
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MacConkey agar (lactose). |
Differential media for Gram-enteric rods (e.g. Escherichia coli). |
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Medically important bacteria that cannot be cultured in media. |
- Treponema pallidum (testicles of live rabbits). - Mycobacterium leprae (armadillo. - Chlamydia and Chlamydophila, Rickettsia (tissue culture or chicken embryo like viruses). |
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The 5 I's. |
1. Inoculation. 2. Isolation. 3. Incubation. 4. Inspection. 5. Identification. |
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Semisolid media used for what? |
1. Check motility of bacteria. 2. Promote anaerobic growth. 3. Fermentation studies. |
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Colony. |
Group of several million bacteria (clones) derived from one bacterial cell. |
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CFU/mL is the same as...? |
bacteria/mL. |
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Heterotrophs. |
Bacteria that require organic carbon for growth e.g. simple sugars (C,N,K,S). All clinically important bacteria fall under this category. |
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Haemophilus influenzae growth in medium via? |
Hemin and NAD. |
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Mycoplasmas growth in medium via? |
Cholesterol. |
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Most pathogenic bacterias' optimum pH. |
Neutralophiles @ 7-7,3. |
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Vibrio cholerae's optimum pH. |
Alkaliphile @ 8,5-9,5. |
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Alkaliphiles. |
Optimum pH >8,5. |
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Acidophiles. |
Optimum pH <5,5. |
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What organisms tolerate moderate acid pHs? |
Fungi (yeast and molds) and some bacteria e.g. Lactobacilli and Streptococci. |
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Mesophiles optimum temperature.
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35 degrees Celsius. |
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Psychrophiles optimum temperature. |
5 degrees Celsius. |
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Thermophiles optimum temperature. |
70 degrees Celsius. |
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Aerobes. |
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Facultative anaerobes.
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Anaerobes. |
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Sterilization. |
Killing all living entities and endospores. |
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Alfa hemolysis. |
Partial hemolysis in blood agar. RBCs remain intact, but hemoglobin components' color are altered. |
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Beta hemolysis. |
Complete hemolysis in blood agar. RBCs have become lysed and hemoglobin components completely colorless. |
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Gamma hemolysis. |
No hemolysis in blood agar. RBCs remain intact and unaltered. |
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Wet mounts. What is it, and what's the purpose? |
Short-term mounts for fresh, living preparations. Study if a microorganism is motile or not (possess flagella). Also permits undistorted view of arrangement, size, shape and color. |
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Smears. |
Long-term mounts that are fixed and stained preparations. |
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Basic (cationic) stains.
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Positively charged stain that binds to negatively charged compounds of bacterial cell wall. Methylene blue, crystal violet, safranin and basic fuchsin. |
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Acidic (anionic) stains. |
Negatively charged stain that stains the background. Nigrosin and india ink. |
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What is this? Purpose? |
Heat fixation. - Kill the bacterial cells. - Attach/fix them to the glass surface. - Preserve morphology but not internal structures. |
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Other fixation methods than heat. |
Alcohol and acetone. |
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Gram-positive bacteria. |
- Staphylococcus aureus. - Streptococcus pneumoniae. - Bacillus anthracis. |
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Gram-negative bacteria. |
- Haemophilus influenzae. - Escherichia coli. - Neisseria mengitidis. |
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Etiologic agent of tuberculosis. |
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. |
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Etiologic agent of leprosy; Hansen's disease. |
Mycobacterium leprae. |
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Etiologic agent of syphilis. |
Treponema pallidum. |
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Negative stain pro. |
More accurate cell size determination because of no heat fixation (shrinkage). Accentuated capsule. Useful for studying spirochetes (e.g. T. pallidum). |
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Endospores formed by gram-positive bacilli. |
- Bacillus (aerobic bacilli). - Clostridium (anaerobic bacilli). |
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Species and type of spore. |
Bacillus spp. Subterminal spore. |
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Species and type of spore. |
Bacillus spp. Central spore. |
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Species and type of spore. |
Clostridium botulinum. Subterminal spore/"tennis racquet". |
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Species and type of spore. |
Clostridium tetani. Terminal spore/"drumstick". |
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Species and type of spore. |
Clostridium spp. Central spore. |
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Gram stain does not stain what? |
Endospores. However, the vegetative cell is, thus showing the presence of endospore. |
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Maneval's stain stains what structures? |
Background and cell, but NOT capsule. |
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Flagella. |
Fine, threadlike organelles of locomotion. |
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Peritrichous. |
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Iodotrichous.
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Amphitrichous. |
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Monotrichous. |
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Irregular or variable in shape bacteria. |
Pleomorphic bacteria. |
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Vibrio/incomplete spiral. |
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Spirillium/spiral. |
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Club-shaped. |
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Cocco-bacilli.
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Bacillus/rod-shaped.
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Coccus/spherical. |
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Listeria. |
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Bacillus spp.
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Corynebacterium diphtheriae. |
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Candida albicans (yeast). ALL YEAST AND YEAST-LIKE FUNGI ARE GRAM-POSITIVE. |
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Resolving power of a light microscope. |
0,2 μm. |
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Resolving power. |
The ability to distinguish two points as separate ones. |
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Microorganisms. |
Living organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye. |
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Naked eye resolution limit. |
ca. 0,1 mm. |
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Superbug. |
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria aka MRSA. |
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How do microorganisms keep the earth's ecosystem in balance? |
- Account for >50% of the worlds' photosynthesis. - Decomposition of dead organic matter and nutrient recycling. - Fixation of free nitrogen (symbiosis with plants). - Make possible cycles of C, O2, N and S. - Regulate temperature of the earth. |
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In what part of our lives are we free of microbes? |
Fetal life. |
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How many bacteria do we have in and on our body compared to our cells? |
10x more. |
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Etiologic agent of plague. |
Yersinia pestis. |
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The study of microorganisms which affect human health. |
- Pathogenesis. - Epidemiology. - Diagnosis. - Prophylaxis. |
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Mutualism. |
Both host and microbe benefit. |
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Commensalism. |
Host not harmed, commensal benefits. |
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Parasitism. |
Host harmed, parasite benefits. |
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Carrier state. |
Asymptomatic individual who is host to pathogenic microorganism and has the potential of transmitting it to others. |
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Etiologic agent of typhoid fever. |
Salmonella typhi. |
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Cellular and prokaryotic (no nucleus). |
Bacteria and archaea.
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Cellular and eukaryotic (with nucleus). |
Unicellular: Fungi (yeasts) and protists. Multicellular: Fungi (molds) and worms. |
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Noncellular and only RNA. |
Viroid. |
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Noncellular and only protein. |
Prions.
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Noncellular with proteins + RNA or DNA. |
Virus. |
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Phylogenetics. |
Evolution of the organism. |
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Phenotype. |
The physically seen traits (shape, size). |
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Eukaryotic cell. 1. Cell wall. 2. DNA. 3. Histones. 4. First amino acid in protein synthesis. 5. Ribosomes. 6. Cell division. 7. Cell membrane. |
1. Plants (cellulose) and fungi (chitin). 2. Linear. 3. Present. 4. Methionine. 5. 80S. 6. Mitosis. 7. Sterols. |
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Prokaryotic cell. 1. Cell wall. 2. DNA. 3. Histones. 4. First amino acid in protein synthesis. 5. Ribosomes. 6. Cell division. 7. Cell membrane. |
1. Bacteria (peptidoglycan) and archaea.
2. Circular. 3. Only in archaea. 4. Formylmethionine (bacteria) and methionine (archaea). 5. 70S. 6. Binary fission. 7. No sterols (except mycoplasmas). |
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Eukaryotic organelles. 1. What are they? 2. Cell wall. 3. DNA. 4. Histones. 5. First amino acid in protein synthesis. 6. Ribosomes. 7. Cell division. |
1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts. 2. No. 3. Circular. 4. No. 5. Formylmethionine. 6. 70S. 7. Binary fission. |
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The idea of eukaryotic species. |
Based on sexual reproduction. |
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Strain. |
Subset of a bacterial species differing from other bacteria of the same species by some minor but identifiable difference. |
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Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of what? |
- Community-acquired pneumonia. - Meningitis. - Upper respiratory tract infections. - Sinusitis. - Otitis media. |
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Mycoplasma. 1. What is it? 2. Typical cell wall. 3. Pathogen. 4. Reproduction. 5. Size range. 6. Shape. 7. Stain. |
1. Bacteria. 2. No cell wall. 3. Extracellular pathogens. 4. Asexually via binary fission. 5. Smallest 0,2 μm. 6. Pleomorphic. 7. Neither Gram-positive or negative. |
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Rickettsia. 1. What is it? 2. Typical cell wall. 3. Pathogen. 4. Reproduction. 5. Size range. 6. Shape. 7. Stain. |
1. Bacteria. 2. Typical cell wall. 3. Obligate intracellular pathogen. 4. Asexually via binary fission. 5. Very small (<0,1 μm). 6. Coccobacilli. 7. Neither Gram-positive or negative. |
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Chlamydia. 1. What is it? 2. Typical cell wall. 3. Pathogen. 4. Reproduction. 5. Size range. 6. Shape. 7. Stain. |
1. Bacteria. 2. Atypical cell wall. 3. Obligate intracellular pathogen. 4. Specific life cycle (two stages). 5. Very small (<0,1 μm). 6. Coccobacilli. 7. Neither Gram-positive or negative. |
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Walking pneumonia/pneumonia with atypical course. |
Mycoplasma pneumoniae. |
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Nonspecific infections of the urogenital tract. |
Mycoplasma hominis and Ureaplasma urealyticum. |
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Etiologic agent of typhus. |
Rickettsia prowazekii and typhi, transmitted by blood-sucking arthropods. |
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Etiologic agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. |
Rickettsia rickettsii, transmitted by ticks. |
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Chlamydia eye serotypes. |
A-C. |
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Chlamydia genital serotypes. |
D-K. |
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Chlamydia L1, L2, L3 serotypes. |
Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV). |
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Etiologic agent of psittacosis or ornithosis. |
Chlamydophila psittaci. |
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How do yeasts grow, and how do they reproduce? |
They grow as single cells (unicellular) and reproduce mainly by asexual budding. |
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How do molds grow, and how do they form? |
Molds grow as long filaments (hyphae) and form a mat-like structure (mycelium). Multicellular. |
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Dimorphic fungi. |
Form different structures at different temperatures e.g. molds at room temperature and yeast at body temperature. |
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Two main characteristics differentiating fungi from other eukaryotes (e.g. protozoa). |
- Rigid cell wall containing chitin or glucan. - Cell membrane with ergosterol (instead of cholesterol). |
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Viroids definition. |
Noncoding ssRNA molecules that interfere with cellular RNA as antisense RNA. |
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The only significant human pathogen structurally related to the viroids. |
Hepatitis D virus. |
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Prions definition and characteristic. |
Proteinaceous Infectious Particles. - No nucleic acids. - Made of proteins. - Diseases are disorders of protein conformation. - Occurs as infectious, sporadic or genetic. - Does not elicit inflammatory or immune response. - Untreatable and universally fatal. Causes degeneration of CNS via Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSE). |
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What type of cell is this? Name the parts. |
Bacteria. |
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What type of cell is this? Name the parts. |
Prokaryotic cell.
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What type of cell is this? Name the parts. |
Eukaryotic cell. |
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No membrane-delimited compartments. |
- Nucleus. - Golgi apparatus. - Mitochondria/chloroplasts. - Endoplasmic reticulum. |
MENG |
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Bacterial essential components. |
- Cytoplasm. - Ribosomes 70S. - Nuclear area (nucleoid) containing DNA. - Cell wall (except mycoplasmas). - Plasma membrane. |
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Bacterial nonessential components. |
- Fimbriae. - Flagella. - Plasmid. - Inclusion. - Mesosomes. - Capsule. |
**** Friends Puler Ikke Med Condom. |
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Bacterial cell wall main component and function. |
Peptidoglycan (murein, mucopeptide). Gives the bacteria its' rigid structure. |
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Gram+ bacteria cell wall characteristic. |
Thick cell wall layer of peptidoglycans, accounting for 80% of dry cell wall mass. |
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Gram- bacteria cell wall characteristic. |
Thin cell wall layer of peptidoglycans, covered by an external outer membrane (OM), accounting for 10% of dry cell wall mass. |
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Penicillin function. |
Disrupt murein synthesis (aka cell wall synthesis). |
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What enzyme digests murein (peptidoglycan) and proteins? |
Lysozyme. |
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Virulence factors of Gram-positive bacteria. What and where? |
- Teichoic acids on murein/cell wall. - Lipoteichoic acids anchored on CM. - Cell-associated proteins. |
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Severity of a disease caused by a particular pathogen depends on what? |
Its' virulence. The capability to establish itself in the host and cause damage. |
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Common cause of pharyngitis and rheumatic fever. |
Streptococcus pyogenes. Caused by antibodies that attack S. pyogenes' M protein cross-react with myocardial cells. |
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Facultative intracellular pathogen. |
Listeria monocytogenes. Internalin binds to host intestinal epithelium. |
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Outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria consists of what? What is shed from the bacteria? |
Porins, lipoproteins, transport protein and LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE (LPS). LPS is shed from the bacteria. |
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Vancomycin use. Function? |
ONLY AGAINST GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA. Because in Gram-negative, its' molecular structure is far too large to cross the outer membrane. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis by binding to D-alanine D-alanine. |
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Responsible for the toxic effect of LPS. |
Lipid A. |
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Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) present where, and what is the characteristic? |
Present in: - Haemophilus. - Neisseria. - Bordetella. - Vibrio. - Acinetobacter. Lacks O antigen portion of LPS and is readily shed from bacteria. |
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LPS category and function. |
Endotoxin that elicits septic shock by activating B cells to induce Mø, DC to release IL-1 and TNF.
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Important enzyme in periplasmic space. |
Beta-lactamase. Also proteases, phosphatases, lipases and nucleases. They are involved in transport, degradation and synthesis. |
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Porins. |
Proteins that form pores in OM to allow passage of essential substances. (This, for instance, gives Gram-negative bacteria protection against some antibiotics). |
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What is a beta-lactam antibiotic, and what mechanism is resistant against it? Where do Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria use this mechanism? |
Penicillin. Beta-lactamase inactivates it. Gram-positive inactivate beta-lactam drugs extracellularly. Gram-negative inactivate beta-lactam drugs in the periplasmic space. |
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What Gram-stained bacteria, and what are the parts? |
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What Gram-stained bacteria, and what are the parts? |
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Function of bacterial cell wall. |
- Determines the shape. - Provides structural support to protect from collapsing because of changes in osmotic pressure. - Plays an important role in cell division. - Protects against antibodies, antibiotics and lysozymes. - Some components are virulence factors. |
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L-forms of bacteria. Characteristic? |
Bacteria with cell wall defects. They are totally resistant to antibiotics which block synthesis of murein. Can be through mutation, lysozyme or penicillin. |
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Gram-negative L-form. |
Spheroplast.
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Gram-positive L-form. |
Protoplast. |
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Mycoplasma cell membrane stabilized by? Function? |
Sterols. Resistant to lysis. |
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Mycobacteria cell wall structure. |
Peptidoglycan layer surrounded by a wax like coat of mycolic acid and other lipids. |
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Etiologic agent for diphtheria. |
Corynebacterium diphtheriae. |
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Bacterial cytoplasmic membrane (CM). |
Lipid bilayer structure similar to the structure of eukaryotic membranes, but contain no sterols (except mycoplasma).
Plays an important role in cell division. |
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Enzymes in formation of the peptidoglycan. |
Penicillin-Binding Proteins (PBPs). |
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B-lactam antibiotics resistance mechanisms. |
- PBP modification (MRSA). - B-lactamase production. |
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Mesosomes. |
- Complex invaginations of CM. - Play a role in cell division. - Site for respiratory enzymes. |
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Polysaccharide coat. Function? |
Glycocalyx. Coating of macromolecules (polysaccharides) to protect the cell. Can be slimy or gelatinous (capsule). Can also be a virulence factor! |
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Biofilm. Examples? |
A structured community of bacterial cells embedded in a self-produced polymer matrix attached to an inert surface or living tissue. Dental plaque is an example. |
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Host-actin polymerization. |
Bacteria motility inside eukaryotic cell. |
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Structure of bacterias that most commonly cause meningitis. |
Encapsulated. |
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Fimbriae (pili) found where? Function? |
Gram-negative bacteria. 1. Adherence (virulence). 2. Sex pili --> Transfer of DNA during conjugation. |
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Reproductive spores. |
Fungal spores. NOT BACTERIAL SPORES. |
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Most resistant microbial entities. |
Endospores. |
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Endospores characteristics. |
- Highly dehydrated. - High content of calcium. - Special molecules (e.g. dipicolinic acid). - Surrounded by keratin-like coat. |
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Goal of sterilization. |
Endospore destruction. |
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Etiologic agent for anthrax. |
Bacillus anthracis. |
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Zoonosis. |
Infectious disease naturally transmissible from animals to humans. |
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Tetanus toxin. |
Clostridium tetani - Prevents muscle relaxation (because of neurotoxin tetanospasmin). |
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Botulinum toxin. |
Clostridium botulinum - Prevents muscle contraction. |
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The most powerful toxin known to man. |
Botulinum toxin aka Botox. |
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Haploid bacteria. |
Bacteria usually only has one single circular chromosome. |
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Linear chromosomed bacteria. |
Borrelia burgdorferi and Streptomyces spp. |
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Etiologic agent for lyme disease. |
Borrelia burgdorferi. |
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Humans' chromosome size. How much of this is the genome? |
3000 Mb. 750 Mb. |
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Operon. |
A coordinated set of genes, all of which are regulated as a single unit. |
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Bacterial mRNA. |
Polycistronic. Numerous proteins are coded for on the same mRNA. |
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Bacterial operon negative control. |
Repressor protein binds to operator, preventing RNA polymerase from binding properly to the promoter sequence. |
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Bacterial operon positive control. |
Activator protein binds to operator, stabilizing the RNA polymerase binding to the promoter sequence. |
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Region of the cytoplasm containing the chromosome. |
Nucleoid. |
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Enzymes responsible for DNA supercoiling. |
Gyrases/Topoisomerases. |
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Bacterial virus. |
Bacteriophage. |
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Mobilomes. |
Plasmids, transposons and bacteriophages. |
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Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT). How does this happen? |
Bacteria that can pass their genes not only to offspring, but also to other microbes. - Conjugation (via plasmids). - Transduction (via bacteriophages). - Transformation (acquisition of "naked" DNA from environment). |
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Plasmids characteristics. |
- Replicate independently from the chromosome. - Can be a part of the chromosome (episomes). |
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Lysogenic cycle (lysogeny) characteristic. |
The interaction with bacteriophage does not cause cell disruption. That, compared to the lytic cycle, does. |
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Lysogenic conversion. |
When a bacteria acquires a new feature (e.g. virulence) from its' prophage. |
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Etiologic agent for cholera. |
Vibrio cholerae. |
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Etiologic agent for erythrogenic toxin; Scarlet fever. |
Streptococcus pyogenes. |
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What are they, and what is the stain? |
Ernst-Babes bodies with Neisser's stain. |
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Diphtheria toxin production is dependent on what? |
Presence of lysogenic beta-phage. |
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Antibiotics mechanisms of action. |
1. Cell wall. 2. Protein synthesis (50S and 30S subunit). 3. DNA + RNA. 4. Folic acid synthesis. 5. Cell membrane. |
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Generation time. |
Doubling time. The time interval between two subsequent binary fissions. |
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All bacteria which can live in the presence of oxygen has what kind of enzyme, and what is its' function? |
Superoxide dismutase (SOD); catalyzes the reduction of superoxide anions to H2O2. |
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Both aerobic and anaerobic contain what kind of enzyme, and what is its' function? |
Catalase; decomposes H2O2. |
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Polymers of ribitol or glycerol phosphate. |
Teichoic acid. |
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The wall formed during prokaryotic cellular division. |
Septum. |
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Patients with kidney stones usually have this condition caused by these bacteria. |
High levels of urease producing bacteria, such as Proteus spp. and Klebsiella spp. |
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Microbial succession. |
Process in which organisms previously unable to colonize the original site are now provided with an environment suitable for their growth. |
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Quorum sensing. |
Bacteria are able to sense the presence of other bacterial cells. |
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Amensalism (antagonism) is the same as? |
Parasitism. |
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Microorganisms cannot alter the pH of their surroundings (T/F). |
True. |
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Rickettsia and Chlamydia cannot be cultured on artificial media (T/F). |
True. |
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Contains RNA in its' genome. |
HIV. |
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Smallest group of bacteria include...? |
Rickettsia, chlamydia and mycoplasma. |
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Viral enzyme that makes a DNA copy of an RNA molecule. |
Reverse transcriptase. |
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What must be present during transduction? |
Bacteriophage. |
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Pieces of DNA that have the ability to move from one site to another on the chromosome. |
Transposons and SI. |
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Cocci arranged in "grape-like" clusters. |
Staphylococci. |
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The form of bacterial virus which is covalently inserted into its' hosts' DNA. |
Prophage. |
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Has mycolic acid on cell wall and identified with acid-fast stain. |
Nocardia. |
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Recombination that does not require homologous sequences and is utilized by mobile genetic elements that move about chromosomes. |
Replicative recombination. |
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Mediates chemotaxis towards nutrients. |
Flagella. |
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One-way transfer of genetic information. |
Conjugation. |
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Grow best in the presence of increased concentrations of CO2. |
Capnophiles e.g. Haemophilus influenzae. |
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Identification or typing of bacteria by specific antibodies. |
Serotyping. |
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Protein coat of a virus.
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Capsid. |
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Viruses that contain an RNA genome, which is converted to a DNA molecule as they are replicated. |
Retroviruses. |
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Space between cytoplasmic membrane and the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. |
Periplasmic space. |
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Most common organisms found on human skin. |
Staphylococcus epidermidis. |
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Major site of Bacteriodes fragilis. |
Colon. |
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Common site for Staphylococcus aureus. |
Nose. |
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Attenuated toxin. |
Diphtheria toxoid. |
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Thread-like filaments forming the mycelium of the fungus. |
Hypha. |
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Bacterial membrane contains what? |
Hopanoids, etholamine and integral proteins. |
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Gram staining procedure. |
Crystal violet, Gram's iodine, Alcohol and Fuchsin. |
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Bacterial growth phases. |
- Lag phase. - Growth phase. - Stationary phase. - Death phase. |
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Viral infection process. |
- Attachment. - Penetration. - Uncoating. - Replication. - Assembly. - Release. |
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Causes the creation of new types of influenza virus. |
Reassortment. |
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Faulty protein. |
Missense. |
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Incomplete protein. |
Nonsense. |
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Normal protein. |
Silent. |
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How many genes does Escherichia coli code? |
About 5000 genes. |
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Group that only includes prokaryotic cells. |
Bacteria. |
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Size range typical for medically important bacteria. |
0,2-8 micrometers. |
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What is being compared during DNA hybridization studies of two bacteria? |
Similarity of nucleotide sequences. |
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Catalase is important in what genera? |
Staphylococcus and Streptococcus. |
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Part of influenza virus playing part in attaching to host cells. |
Hemagglutinins. |
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RNA viruses multiply where? |
Cell cytoplasm. |
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DNA viruses multiply where? |
Cell nucleus. |
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Nucleic acid configuration NOT found in viral genomes. |
Segmented double-stranded DNA. |
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HIV is an oncovirus (T/F). |
False. |
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What fungi causes endemic mycoses? |
Aspergillus and Mucor. |
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How does a capsule increase the virulence factor? |
Helps bacteria evade phagocytosis. |
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Capsule of Bacillus anthracis composed of what? |
Amino acids. |
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Virus with oncogenic properties in humans. |
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV). |
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Virion meaning. |
Infectious virus particles. |
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Serotyping is based on what? |
Antigen-antibody reactions. |
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Ergosterol is found where? In the cell membrane of what? |
Apergillus flavus. Fungi. |
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Bacterial mRNA molecule that encodes for several proteins. |
Polycistronic mRNA. |
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LPS is a protein (T/F). |
False. |
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Where is endotoxins found? |
In Gram-negative bacteria. |
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