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205 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Fundamental Attribution error |
thetendency for people to judge other’s behaviours as being due to internal factorssuch as ability, motivation, or attitudes |
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Self-serving bias: |
whenone attributes one’s own failures to external factors and success to internalfactors |
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Consensus: |
o used by decision makers to attribute cause; whetherother individuals behave the same way under similar circumstances |
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Distinctiveness: |
o used by decision makes to attribute cause; whether theperson being judged acts in a similar fashion under different circumstances |
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Consistency: |
o used by decision makers to attribute cause; whetherthis individual has behaved this way before under similar circumstances |
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Escalationof Commitment |
a common decision-making error, in which the decisionmaker continues to follow a failing course of action |
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training |
· asystematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-relatedknowledge and behaviour |
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knowledge transfer: |
· theexchange of knowledge between employees |
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behaviour modellingtraining: |
· whenemployees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and therepeat the observed behaviour |
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communities of practice: |
· groupsof employees who learn from one another through collaboration over an extendedperiod of time |
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transfer of training: |
· occurswhen employees retain and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and behavioursrequired for their jobs after training ends |
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climate for transfer: |
· anorganizational environment that supports the use of new skills |
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Availability bias: |
· thetendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easier torecall |
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heuristics |
· simpleand efficient rules of thumb that allow one to make decisions more easily |
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Stereotype: |
· assumptionsmade about others based on their social group membership |
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Social identity theory: |
· atheory that people identify themselves according to the various groups to whichthey belong and judge others according to the groups the associate with |
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Projection bias: |
· thefaulty perception by decision makers that others, think, feel, and act as theydo |
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Selective perception: |
· thetendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as itis consistent with their expectation |
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Bounded rationality: |
· thenotion that people do not have the ability or resources to process allavailable information and alternatives when making a decision |
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Satisficing: |
o what a decision maker is doing when he chooses thefirst acceptable alternative considered |
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Rational decision-makingmodel: |
o a step-by-step approach to making decisions that isdesigned to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives |
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Intuition: |
o an emotional judgment based on quick, unconscious gutfeelings |
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Programmed decisions: |
· decisionsthat are somewhat automatic because the decision maker’s knowledge allows himor her to recognize the situation and the course of action to be taken |
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Learning orientation: |
· apredisposition or attitude according to which building competence is deemedmore important by an employee than demonstrating competence |
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Performance-proveorientation: |
· apredisposition or attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating theircompetence so that others think favourably of them |
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Performance-avoidorientation: |
· apredisposition or attitude by which employees focus on demonstrating theircompetence so that others will not think poorly of them |
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Behavioural modelling |
o employees’ observing the actions of others, learningfrom what they observe, and then repeating the observed behaviour |
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Social learning theory: |
· theorythat argues that people in organizations learn by observing others |
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Continuous reinforcementschedule: |
aschedule of reinforcement in which a specific consequence follows each andevery occurrence of a certain behaviour |
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Fixed-interval schedule: |
o a schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at fixed timeperiods |
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Variable-interval schedule: |
o a schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at randomperiods of time |
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Fixed-ratio schedule: |
o a schedule whereby reinforcement occurs following afixed number of desired behaviours |
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Variable-ratio schedule: |
aschedule whereby behaviours are reinforced after a varying number of them havebeen exhibited |
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Explicit knowledge: |
knowledgethat is easily communicated and available to everyone |
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Tacit knowledge: |
knowledgethat employees can only learn through experience |
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communicator competence: |
theability of communicators to encode and interpret messages |
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noise: |
· disturbingor distracting stimuli that block or interfere with the transmission of amessage |
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information richness: |
· theamount and depth of the information transmitted in a message |
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all-channel networkstructure: |
· acommunication network in which any member can send and receive messages fromany other |
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circle network structure: |
· acommunication network in which members send and receive messages fromindividuals who are immediately adjacent to them |
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chain network structure: |
· acommunication network in which information is passed from member to member,from one end of the chain to the other |
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Y network structure: |
· acommunication network in which one member controls the flow of informationbetween one set of members and another o combinationof the chain and wheel networks |
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wheel network structure: |
· acommunication network in which all communication between members is controlledby a single member |
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informal communicationnetwork: |
· spontaneousand emergent patterns of communication that result from the choices individualsmake on their own |
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grapevine: |
· theprimary informal communication network within an organization |
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supervisor feedback: |
· aform of downward communication in which the supervisor provides information toa subordinate about his or her job performance |
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reliability: |
o the extent to which the selectionprocedure (e.g. job interview) is free from random error |
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predictive validity: |
o the extent to which the selectionprocedure (e.g. job interview) predicts future job performance |
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behavioural description (interview): |
applicantsare told about important job attributes of the role they are applying for andthen asked to reflect upon their past work experience and describe behavioursthat demonstrate the attribute in question |
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situational: |
o applicantsare presented with several realistic job scenarios that each involve a dilemmathat needs to be resolved |
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Work teams: |
· relativelypermanent in which members work together to produce goods and/or provideservices (core operational level production and service tasks à e.g. assembling a car) |
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Management teams: |
· relativelypermanent team that participates in managerial-level tasks that affect theentire organization (integrate activities of all of an organization’s subunits) |
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Parallel teams: |
· teamscomposed of members from various jobs within the organization that meet toprovide recommendations about important issues (provide recommendations andresolve issues) |
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Project teams: |
teamsformed to take on one-time tasks, most of which tend to be complex and requireinput from different functional areas (e.g. new product, service, design etc.) |
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Action teams: |
· teamsof limited duration that performs complex tasks in contexts that tend to behighly visible and challenging (e.g. sports team, rock band vs. two hoursurgical unit or flight crew) |
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Virtual teams: |
· teamin which the members are geographically dispersed, and interdependent activityoccurs through e-mail, web conferencing, and instant messaging |
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Forming: |
1. memberorient themselves by trying to find their boundaries in the team |
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Storming: |
1. membersremain committed to ideas they bring with them to the team (can harm progress) |
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Norming: |
1. membersrealize they need to work together to accomplish team goals, and consequently,they begin to cooperate with one another |
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Performing: |
1. membersare comfortable working with their roles, and the team makes progress towardgoals |
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Adjourning: |
1. membersexperience anxiety and other emotions as they separate from the team |
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Punctuated equilibrium: |
· asequence of team development during which not much gets done until the halfwaypoint of a project, after which teams make necessary changes to complete theproject on time o Forming and Pattern Creation àIntertia àMidpoint àProcess Revision àInertia |
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Task interdependence: |
· thedegree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members forinformation, materials and resources needed to accomplish work for the teams |
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pooled interdependence: |
o lowestdegree of required coordination (e.g. members work individually and “pile up”everyone’s work to represent the group’s output) |
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sequential interdependence: |
o membersspecialize in tasks that are completed in a prescribed order |
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reciprocal interdependence: |
o specialized members interact with a subset ofother specialized members to complete the team’s work |
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comprehensiveinterdependence: |
o highestlevel of required interaction and coordination§ eachmember has a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and who theyinteract with |
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Goal interdependence: |
· thedegree to which team members have a shared goal and align their individualgoals with that vision |
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Outcome interdependence: |
· thedegree to which team members share equally in the feedback and rewards thatresult from the team achieving its goals |
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Team composition: |
· themix of the various characteristics that describe the individuals who work inthe team. There are five aspects of team composition: |
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team task roles: |
behavioursthat directly facilitate the accomplishment of team tasks (e.g. orienter,devil’s advocate, energizer) |
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team-building roles: |
§ behavioursthat influence the quality of the team’s social climate (e.g. harmonizer,encourager, compromiser à manage conflicts) |
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individualistic roles: |
- behavioursthat benefit the individual at the expense of the team (e.g. aggressor,recognition seeker, dominator) |
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disjunctive task: |
- memberwith the highest level of ability relevant to the task will have the mostinfluence |
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conjunctive tasks: |
- weakestlink will have the most influence (team is only as strong as it’s weakest link) |
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additive tasks: |
- contributionsresulting from the abilities of every member add up to determine teamperformance |
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5 aspects of team composition |
member roles, member ability, member personality, team diversity, team size |
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value in diversityproblem-solving approach: |
atheory that supports team diversity because it provides a larger pool ofknowledge and perspectives |
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similarity-attractionapproach: |
§ atheory explaining that team diversity can be counterproductive because peopletend to avoid interacting with others who are unlike them |
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surface-level diversity |
§ diversityof observable attributes such as race, gender, ethnicity, and age |
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deep-level diversity: |
§ diversityof attributes that are inferred through observation or experience, such asone’s values or personality |
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team size: |
o havinga greater number of members is beneficial for management and project teams butnot for teams engaged in production tasks |
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Team Process: |
· thedifferent types of activities and interactions that occur within a team as theteam works toward its goals |
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Process gain: |
achievementof team outcomes greater than those one would expect on the basis of thecapabilities of the individual members (whole is greater than the sum of itsparts) |
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Process loss: |
· achievementof team outcomes less than those one would expect on the basis of thecapabilities of the individual members |
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coordination losses: |
o occurdue to production blocking (when they have to wait on one another to completetheir part of the team task) |
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motivational losses/socialloafing: |
o reducedaccountability causes members to work less hard than if they were workingindividually |
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Taskwork Processes: |
theactivities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of teamtasks. |
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· 3types of taskwork processes: |
Creative behaviour, decision making, boundary spanning |
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Creative Behaviour: |
generatingnovel and useful ideas |
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brainstorming: |
§ expressall ideas that come to mind; go for quantity over quality; don’t criticize orevaluate the ideas of others; build on the ideas of others |
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nominal group technique: |
§ bringingthe team together and outlining the purpose of the meeting; members have a setperiod of time to write down their own ideas; go back to the team meeting andshare ideas; discuss all ideas; build on others’ ideas; members rank ideas on acard and submit to a facilitator; facilitator calculates and announces thewinning idea |
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Decision Making: |
1. members share information and they worktogether to reach a consensus, or general agreement. Three factors account fora team’s ability to make effective decisions: |
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What are the three factors that account for a team's ability to make effective decisions? |
decision informity, staff validity, hierarchal sensitivity |
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decision informity: |
§ whethermembers possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities |
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staff validity: |
§ refersto the degree to which members make good recommendations to the leader |
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hierarchal sensitivity: |
reflectsthe degree to which the leader effectively weighs the recommendations of themembers |
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Boundary Spanning: |
refersto three types of activities with individuals and groups other than those who are considered a part of the team |
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What are the 3 types of boundary spanning activities? |
ambassador activities, task coordinator activities, scout activities |
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ambassador activities: |
communicationsthat are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, orobtain resources for the team (meet with people who are higher up in theorganization |
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task coordinator activities |
communicationsthat are intended to coordinate task-related issues with people or groups inother functional areas |
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scout activities: |
§ thingsteam members do to obtain information about technology, competitors, or thebroader marketplace |
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Teamwork processes: |
· theinterpersonal activities that promote the accomplishment of team task but donot involve task accomplishment itself |
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What are the 3 types of teamwork processes?
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Transition processes, action processes, and interpersonal processes |
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Transition Processes: |
1. teamwork processes, such as missionanalysis and planning, that focus on preparation for future work in the team |
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Action processes: |
1. teamwork processes, such as helping andcoordination, that aid in the accomplishment of teamwork as the work isactually taking place § monitoringprogress toward goals (e.g. charting progress)§ systemsmonitoring: keeping track of things that the team needs§ helpingbehaviour: involves members going out of their way to help or back up otherteam members (even though it is not their responsibility)§ coordination:synchronizing team members’ activities in a way that makes them mesheffectively and seamlessly (as opposed to waiting for information or resources) |
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Interpersonal processes |
1. teamwork processes, such as motivatingand confidence building, that focus on the management of relationships amongteam members |
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affectmanagement: |
§ involvesactivities that foster a sense of emotional balance and unity |
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Team states: |
· specifictypes of feelings and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members as aconsequence of their experience working together |
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Cohesion: |
: a team state that occurswhen members of the team develop strong emotional bonds to the other members ofthe team and to the team itself |
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groupthink: |
§ behavioursthat support conformity and team harmony at the expense of other teampriorities (therefore, cohesion is not always a good thing) |
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Potency: |
1. a team state reflection of the degree ofconfidence among team members that the can be effective across situations andtasks |
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Mental Models: |
thedegree to which team members have a shared understanding of important aspectsof the team and its task |
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Transactive Memory: |
thedegree to which team members’ specialized knowledge is integrated into aneffective system of memory for the team |
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transportable network competencies: |
teamtraining that involves helping people develop general teamwork competencies |
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cross training: |
· trainingteam members in the duties and responsibilities of their teammates |
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personal clarification: |
o simplyreceive information regarding the roles of other members |
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positional modeling: |
o involvesteam members observing how other members perform their roles |
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positional rotation: |
o givesmembers actual experience carrying out the responsibilities of their teammates |
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team process training: |
theuse of team experiences that facilitates the team’s ability to function andperform more effectively as an intact unit |
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action learning: |
o teamis given a real problem that’s relevant to the organization and they arerequired to analyze the problem, develop an action plan, and carry out theaction plan |
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team building: |
· funactivities that facilitate team problem solving, trust, relationship building,and the clarification of role responsibilities |
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3 types of organizational power |
legitimate, reward, coercive
|
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2 types of personal power |
expert, referent |
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Referent power: |
· aform of personal power based on the attractiveness and charisma of the leader |
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What are the 4 contingencies of power? |
substitutability, discretion, centrality, visibility |
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Substitutability: |
· thedegree to which people have alternatives in accessing the resources that aleader controls |
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Discretion |
thedegree to which managers have the right to make decisions on their own |
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Centrality |
· howimportant a person’s job is and how many people depend on that person toaccomplish tasks |
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Visibility |
· howaware others are of a leader and the resources that leader can provide |
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What are the most effective influence techniques |
rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, consultation, collaboration |
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Rational Persuasion: |
· theuse of logical arguments and hard facts to show someone that their request isworthwhile |
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Inspirational appeal: |
· aninfluence tactic designed to appeal to one’s values and ideals, therebycreating an emotional or attitudinal reaction |
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Consultation: |
· aninfluence tactic whereby the target is allowed to participate in deciding howto carry out or implement a request |
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Collaboration: |
· aninfluence tactic whereby the leader makes it easier for the target to completea request by offering to work with and help the target |
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What are moderately effective influence techniques? |
ingratiation, personal appeals, exchange tactic, apprising |
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Ingratiation: |
· theuse of favours, compliments, or friendly behaviour to make the target feelbetter about the influencer (e.g. “sucking up”) |
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Personal appeals: |
· aninfluence tactic in which the requestor asks for something based on personalfriendships or loyalty |
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exchange tactic: |
· aninfluence tactic in which the requestor offers a reward in return forperforming a request |
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apprising: |
· aninfluence tactic in which the requestor clearly explains why performing therequest will benefit the target personally |
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What are the least effective influence techniques? |
pressure, coalitions |
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Pressure |
· aninfluence tactic in which the requestor attempts to use coercive power throughthreats and demands |
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Coalitions: |
· aninfluence tactic in which the influencer enlists other people to help influencethe target |
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What are the 3 responses to influence tactics? |
internalization, compliance, resistance |
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internalization |
· aresponse to influence tactics in which the target agrees with and becomescommitted to the request (attitude and behaviour change) |
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Compliance: |
· aresponse to influence tactics in which the target is willing to do what theleader asks but does it with a degree of ambivalence (only behaviour changes,not attitude) |
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Resistance: |
· : a response to influence tactics in which the target refusesto perform a request and puts forth an effort to avoid having to do it (neitherbehaviour or attitude changes) |
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Organizational politics: |
· individualactions directed toward the goal of furthering their own interests |
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Political skill: |
· theability to understand others and the use of knowledge to influence them tofurther personal or organizational objectives |
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networking ability: |
o identifyingand developing diverse contacts |
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social astuteness: |
o tendencyto observe others and accurately interpret their behaviour |
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interpersonal influence: |
o havingan unassuming and convincing personal style that’s flexible enough to adapt todifferent situations |
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apparent sincerity: |
o appearingto have high levels of honesty and genuineness |
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4 types of conflict resolution |
competing, avoiding, accommodating, collaboration, compromise |
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Distributive bargaining(zero-sum condition): |
o anegotiation strategy in which one person gains and the other person loses (e.g.buying a car à every dollar dealer saves, buyer losesbut every dollar buyer saves, dealer loses) |
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Integrative bargaining: |
o negotiationstrategy that achieves an outcome that is satisfying for both parties |
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What are the 4 steps of negotiation? |
1. Preparation (BATNA) 2. Exchaning information 3. Bargaining 4. Closing and commitment |
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BATNA |
o bestalternative to a negotiated agreement à at the BATNA point, a negotiator isactually better off not negotiating at all |
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What are the two types of biases during negotiations? |
perceived power distance, emotions |
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leadership |
· theuse of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goalachievement |
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leader-member exchangetheory: |
· atheory describing how leader-member relationships develop over time on a dyadicbasis |
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role taking: |
thephase in the leader-follower relationship when a leader provides and employeewith job expectations and the follower tries to meet those expectations |
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role making: |
o thephase in the leader-follower relationship when a follower voices his or her ownexpectations for the relationship, resulting in a free-flowing exchange ofopportunities and resources for activities and effort |
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high-quality exchange(ingroup): |
o frequentexchange of information, influence, latitude, support and attention; higherlevels of communication, mutual trust, respect, and obligation (better job performanceand organizational commitment) |
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low-quality exchange(outgroup): |
o limitedexchange of information, influence, latitude, support and attention; lowerlevels of communication, mutual trust, respect, and obligation |
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leader effectiveness: |
· thedegree to which the leader’s actions result in the achievement of the unit’sgoals, the continued commitment of the unit’s employees, and the development ofmutual trust, respect, obligation in leader-member dyads |
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leader emergence: |
· theprocess of becoming a leader in the first place |
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autocratic style: |
· aleadership style in which the leader makes the decision alone without askingfor opinions or suggestions of the employees in the work unit |
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consultative style: |
· aleadership style in which the leader presents the problem to employees askingfor their opinions and suggestions before ultimately making the decision him-or herself |
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facilitative style: |
· aleadership style in which the leader presents the problem to a group ofemployees and seeks consensus on a solution, making sure his or her own opinionreceives no more weight than anyone else’s |
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delegative style: |
· aleadership style in which the leader gives the employee the responsibility formaking decisions with some set of specified boundary conditions |
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initiating structure: |
· apattern of behaviour in which the leader defines and structures the roles ofemployees in pursuit of goal attainment |
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consideration |
· apattern of behaviour in which the leader creates job relationshipscharacterized by mutual trust, respect for employee ideas, and consideration ofemployee feelings |
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R1 à telling: |
whenthe leader provides specific instructions and closely supervises performance(high initiating structure and low consideration) |
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R2 à selling: |
§ whenthe leader explains key issues and provides opportunities for clarification(high initiating structure and high consideration) |
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R3 à participating: |
§ leaderbehaviour in which the leader shares ideas and tries to help the group conductits affairs (low initiating structure and high consideration) |
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R4 à delegating: |
§ leaderbehaviour in which the leader turns responsibility for key behaviours over toemployees (low initiating structure and low consideration |
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Transformational leadership: |
apattern of behaviour in which the leader inspires followers to commit to ashared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a rolemodel who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems fromnew perspectives. Has four components. |
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What are the four components of transformational leadership?
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- idealized influence - inspirational motivation - intellectual stimulation - individualized consideration |
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laissez-faire leadership: |
whenthe leader avoids leadership duties altogether |
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transactional leadership: |
· apattern of behaviour in which the leader rewards or disciplines the follower onthe basis of performance |
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passivemanagement-by-exception: |
atype of transactional leadership in which the leader waits around for mistakesand errors, then takes corrective action as necessary |
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active management-by-exception: |
atype of transactional leadership in which the leader arranges to monitormistakes and errors actively, and takes corrective action when required |
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contingent reward: |
amore active and effective type of transactional leadership, in which the leaderattains follower agreement on what needs to be done using rewards in exchangefor adequate performance |
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multidivisional structure: |
· anorganizational form in which employees are grouped by product, geography, orclient |
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functional structure: |
o anorganizational form in which employees are grouped by the functions theyperform for the organization |
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matrix structure: |
· acomplex form of organizational structure that combines a functional andmulti-divisional grouping |
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espoused values: |
thebeliefs, philosophies, and norms that a company explicitly states |
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basic underlyingassumptions: |
· theengrained beliefs and philosophies of employees |
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What are the 4 general culture types? |
fragmented, mercenary, networked, communal
|
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fragmented culture: |
o an organizational culture type in which employees aredistant and disconnected from one another à lowsolidarity, low sociability |
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mercenary culture: |
o an organizational culture type in which employeesthink alike but are not friendly to one another à highsolidarity, low sociability |
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networked culture: |
o an organizational culture type in which employees arefriendly to one another, but everyone thinks differently and does his or herown thing à lowsolidarity, high sociability |
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communal culture: |
o an organizational culture type in which employees arefriendly to one another and all think alike à highsolidarity, high sociability |
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ASA framework: |
· atheory (attraction-selection-attraction) that states that employees will bedrawn to organizations with cultures that match their personality,organizations will select employees that match, and employees will leave or beforced out when they are not a good fit |
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Socialization: |
theprimary process by which employees learn the social knowledge that enables themto understand and adapt to the organization’s culture |
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6Dimensions of Organizational Socialization: |
o goals and values, performance proficiency, language,history, politics, people |
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3 stages of socialization |
- anctipatory stage - encounter stage - understanding and adoption |
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Anticipatory Stage: |
astage of socialization that begins as soon as a potential employee develops animage of what it would be like to work for a company |
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Encounter Stage: |
1. a stage of socialization beginning the day an employeestarts work, during which the employee compares the information as an outsiderto the information learned as an insider |
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Reality shock: |
§ amismatch of information that occurs when an employee finds that aspects ofworking at a company are not what he or she expected them to be |
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Understanding and adaption: |
1. the final stage of socialization, during whichnewcomers come to learn the content areas of socialization and internalize thenorms and expected behaviours of the organization |
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What are the four cultural clusters that emerge from the OCAI |
hierarcally oriented, market oriented clan oriented, adhocracy oriented |
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Person-organization fit: |
· the degreeto which a person’s personality and values match the culture of an organization |
|
What 3 processes speed up the mentoring process? |
realistic job previews, newcomer orientation, mentoring |