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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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coevolution
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the evolution of two or more species that interact closely with one another, with each species adapting to changes in the other
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individual optimization hypothesis
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each individual in a population has its own clutch size, so that not all individuals are identical
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Lack clutch size
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the clutch size at which productivity is maximal for the population
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Lack's hypothesis
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clutch size in birds is determined by the number of young that parents can provide with food; studies have shown this to be false, they can support more than optimal number of eggs layed
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maximum reproduction
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theory that natural selection will maximize reproduction rate, subject to the constraints imposed by feeding and predator avoidance
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natural selection
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process in nature by which only the organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characteristics to succeeding generations while less adapted tend to be eliminated
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optimality models
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models that assume natural selection will achieve adaptations that are best possible for each trait in terms of survival and reproduction
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phenotype
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observable physical characteristics of an organism
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proximate factors
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how a particular trait is regulated by an individual in a physiological or biochemical manner
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ultimate factors
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the evolutionary reason for an adaptation or why a trait is maintained in a population (opposite of proximate)
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directional selection
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phenotypes at one extreme are selected against, produces genotypic changes more rapidly (most artificial selection is this)
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stabilizing selection
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phenotypes near the mean are fitter than those at extremes, so mean doesn't change
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process that drives adaptive evolution
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1.) variation
2.) excess offspring 3.) not all survive and reproduce 4.) there are selective pressures, survivors reproduce 5.) those with traits that allow survival propagate, traits inherited |
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historic inertia
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once you go down an evolutionary pathway, it is hard to escape
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cost-benefit analysis
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an assessment to determine whether the cost of an activity is less than the benefit that can be expected from the activity
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group selection
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natural selection for traits that favor groups within a species irrespective of whether the traits favor individuals or not
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kin selection
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the evolution of traits that increase the survival, and ultimately the reproductive success, of one's relatives
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optimal foraging
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any method of searching for and obtaining food that maximizes the relative benefit
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optimal group size
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the size that results in the largest relative benefit
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promiscuity
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multiple matings in organisms
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relative benefit
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the difference between the costs and benefits
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territory
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defended area
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tradeoffs
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compromises between two desirable but incompatible activities
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time minimization (bird migrating)
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desirable if early arrival at the destination is an important fitness strategy
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energy minimization (bird migrating)
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risks associated with migration are high and use of energy during migration is high, also if resources are sparse on route
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cost of transport minimization (bird migrating)
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optimizes migration cost but within the whole annual cycle rather than only restricted migration period
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dispersal
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the movement of individuals away from their place of birth or hatching or seed production into a new habitat or area to survive and reproduce
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habitat selection
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the behavioral actions of organisms in choosing the areas in which they live and breed
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Liebig's Law of the Minimum
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the rate of any biological process is limited by that factor in least amount relative to requirements, so there is a single limiting factor
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physiological ecology
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studies the biochemical, physical, and mechanical adaptations and limitations of plants and animals to their physical and chemical environments
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Shelford's Law of Tolerance
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the geographical distribution of a species will be controlled by that environmental factor for which the organism has the narrowest range of tolerance
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transplant experiment
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if dispersal is in question, try to transplant it and see if it spreads;
1.) if successful- then there was some barrier preventing it 2.) if unsuccessful- then there is some biotic/abiotic factor making it impossible |
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three conceptual models about the effects of conditions on species performance
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1.) temperature, pH
2.) toxins, radioactive emissions 3.) salt, copper |
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allelopathy
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organisms that alter the surrounding chemical environment in such a way as to prevent other species from using it, typically with toxins or antibiotics
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barriers
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any geographic feature that hinders or prevents dispersal or movement across it, producing isolation
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biogeography
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the study of the geographical distribution of life on Earth and the reasons for the patterns one observes on different continents, islands, or oceans
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fitness
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ability of a particular genotype/phenotype to leave descendants in future generations, relative to other ogranisms
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ideal despotic distribution
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theoretical spatial spread of members of a population in which the competitive dominant "aggressive" individuals take up the best resources or territories, and less competitive individuals take up areas or resources in direct relationship to their dominance status
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ideal free distribution
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theoretical spatial spread of members of a population in which individuals take up areas with equal amounts of resources in relation to their needs, so all individuals do equally well
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Reid's Paradox
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observed large discrepancy between the rapid rate of movement of trees recolonizing areas at the end of the Ice Age and the observed slow dispersal rate of tree seeds spreading by diffusion; colonization rates are driven by extreme dispersal events
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tens rule
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1 species in 10 alien species imported into a country become introduced; 1 in 10 of the introduced species become established; 1 in 10 of the established species becomes a pest
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diffusion dispersal
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gradual movement of a population across hospitable terrain for a period of several generations
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jump dispersal
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movement of individual organisms across large distances followed by the successful establishment of a population in the new area, short amount of time during life and across unsuitable terrain
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secular dispersal
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if diffusion occurs in evolutionary time, the species that is spreading undergoes extensive evolutionary change in the process
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habitat
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any part of the biosphere where a particular species can live, either temporarily or permanently
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two factors that must be kept separate with habitat selection
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1.) evolutionary factors, conferring survival value on habitat selection
2.) behavioral factors, giving the mechanism by which birds select areas |
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criteria that must be fulfilled to conclude that a predator restricts prey distribution
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1.) prey survive when protected from predators in transplant experiment
2.) distributions inversely correlated 3.) suspected predator kills the prey in field/lab 4.) suspected predator shown to destroy prey in transplant |
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climatology
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temperature and moisture are the two main limiting factors to distribution
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latitudinal variation in temperature
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shape of Earth and tilt on axis causes variation in the intensity of solar radiation intercepted by planet
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seasonal variation
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northern and southern hemispheres receive unequal distributions of sunlight depending on season
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continentality
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rates of heating/cooling are different between water and land bodies
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microclimatic variation
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small scale differences in temperature/moisture occur locally
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actual evapotranspiration
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the actual amount of water that is used by and evaporates from a plant community over a given time period, largely dependent on the available water and the temperature
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Calvin-Benson cycle
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the series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms and results in the first step of carbon fixation in photosynthesis; ancestral method used by most plants; CO2 first converted to 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3 carbon)
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common garden
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experimental design in plant ecophysiology in which a series of plants from different areas are brought together and planted in one area, side by side, in an attempt to determine which features of the plants are genetically controlled and which are environmentally determined; test whether observed differences are determined by local adaptations (genotype) or immediate response to environment (phenotypic plasticity)
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crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
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open stomata to take up CO2 at night, minimizing water loss during day, low photosynthetic rate and can switch to C3 during day, found in deserts
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ecotype
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genetic race of a plant or animal species that is adapted to a specific set of environmental conditions such as temperature or salinity
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Krantz anatomy
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particular type of leaf anatomy that characterizes C4 plants; plant veins are encased by thick walled photosynthetic bundle-sheath cells that are surrounded by thin walled spongy mesophyll cells
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photoperiodism
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physiological responses of plants and animals to the length of day
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potential evapotranspiration
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theoretical depth of water that would evaporate from a standard flat pan over a given period if water is not limiting, largely dependent on temperature
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shade-intolerant plants
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plants that cannot survive and grow in the shade of another plant, requiring open habitats for survival
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shade-tolerant plants
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plants that can live and grow in the shade of other plants
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continental climates
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land controlled climates that have large daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations
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temp/moisture affect the distribution of species through
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1.) survival
2.) reproduction 3.) development of young organisms 4.) interactions with other organisms near the limits of temperature or moisture tolerance |
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factors limiting/affecting timberline
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1.) lack of soil
2.) desiccation of leaves in cold weather 3.) short growing season 4.) lack of snow, exposing plants to winter drying 5.) excessive snow lasting through the summer 6.) mechanical effects of high winds 7.) rapid heat loss at night 8.) excessive soil temperatures during the day 9.) drought |
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C4 Pathway
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first produce malic and aspartic acids (4 carbon), can also use C3 method of carbon fixation, always produce more photosynthate per unit area of leaf than C3 plants, more efficient, C4 leaves have Krantz anatomy which have higher concentration of mitochondria
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ecological specialization model
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proposed explanation of Hanski's Rule postulating that species that exploit a wide range of resources become both widespread and common; these species are generalists; also called Brown's model
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generalists
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species that eat a variety of foods or live in a variety of habitats; contrast with specialists
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Hanski's Rule
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the generalization that there is a positive relationship between distribution and abundance, such that abundant species have wide geographic ranges
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local population model
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proposed explanation of Hanski's Rule that assumes that species differ in their capacity to disperse, and if the environment is divided into patches, some species will occupy more local patches than other as a function of their dispersal powers
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Rapoport's Rule
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the generalization that geographic range sizes decrease as on moves from polar to equatorial latitudes, such that range sizes are smaller in the tropics
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sampling model
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one proposed explanation for Hanski's Rule that the observed relationship between distribution and abundance is an artifact of the difficulty of sampling rare species and does not therefore require a biological explanation
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specialists
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species that eat only a few foods or live in only one or two habitats; contrast with generalists
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ecological explanation for Rapoport's Rule
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1.) climatic variability is greater at higher latitudes, and only organisms that have a broad range of tolerance for variable climates can live there
2.) product of glaciation 3.) lack of competition in polar communities |
