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83 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Learning
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A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, and attitude.
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Learning is acquired through:
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Experience; cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation. Ex: infants do not 'learn' how to walk, as basic motor skills and maturation govern every species.
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An example of classical conditioning is:
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Pavlov's classical conditioning; classically conditioning a salivation response
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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Stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without learning.
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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Response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a CR.
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Conditioned response (CR)
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Learned response that comes to be elicited by a CS as a result of its repeated pairing with an UCS.
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Extinction
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Weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS without the UCS.
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Spontaneous recovery
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Reappearance of an extinguished response after exposure to the original CS following a rest period.
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Generalization
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Tendency to make a CR to stimulus that is similar to the original CS.
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Discrimination
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Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli.
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John Watson
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Emotional conditioning
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John Watson's "Little Albert"
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An emotional conditioning experiment to prove fear could be classically conditioned in 1919.
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Four major factors that influence classical conditioning:
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1. How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus (How much you know ahead of time).
2. The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (How often the CS and UCS are shown together) 3. The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus (How strong the stimulus is). 4. The amount of time that elapses between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (How long the CS and UCS are/ are not shown together). |
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Law of effect
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The consequences, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened; trial-and-error learning. Ex: responses closely followed by "satisfying consequences" are more likely to be repeated; responses that have unpleasant consequences will be avoided.
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Operant conditioning
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A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to: increase or decrease the frequency of a response and shape an entirely new response.
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Reinforcer
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Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated.
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Positive reinforcement
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Pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a response.
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Negative reinforcement
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Termination of an unpleasant conditioning following a response.
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Primary reinforcer
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A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning.
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Secondary reinforcer
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Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers.
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Shaping
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Consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response.
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Punishment
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The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response.
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Positive punishment
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Behavior decreases from an added consequence.
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Negative punishment
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Behavior decreases from removing a consequence; usually involves the loss of something desirable.
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Cognitive processes
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Mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations.
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Learning by insight
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The sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent.
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Latent learning
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Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so.
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Observational learning (modeling)
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Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior.
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Model
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A person who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated.
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Learning from Media
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Bandura demonstrated how children are influenced by aggressive models; video games.
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Information-Processing Theory
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Uses computer science to provide models to help psychologists understand the processes of memory.
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What are the three memory systems?
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Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
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Sensory memory
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A temporary storage buffer that preserves sensory impressions for perhaps a fraction of a second to perhaps a few seconds.
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Working memory
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Subsystem used with understanding information, remembering information, solving problems, and communicating with others.
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Maintenance rehearsal
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Repeating information to keep it in short term memory.
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Elaborative rehearsal
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Relating new information to something that is already known.
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Long-term memory (LTM)
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The memory system with virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories.
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Subsystems of LTM (long-term memory) include:
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Declarative memory system (factual information), semantic memory (general knowledge, and stored undated), episodic memory (data recollections of personal experiences)
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Recall
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Producing required information by searching memory.
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Retrieval cue
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Any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieval.
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Recognition
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Identifying material as familiar or as having been encountered before; only requires that you recognize it, not recall all the information.
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Serial position effect
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For information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence.
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Primary effect
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Tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items.
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Recency effect
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Tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle.
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Context-dependent memory
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The situation where information is easier to recall when a person is in the same environmental context they were in when they learned it.
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Misinformation effect
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Misleading information supplied after the event confounds a witness' memory.
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Repressed memories
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False memories "recovered" by influence of suggestions; false memories created by repeated exposures to suggestions. Ex: a person asked to imagine a fictitious event may develop a false memory of the event.
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Infantile amnesia
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the inability to recall events from the first few years of life likely due to limited language and hippocampus development.
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Amnesia
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Partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage, or psychological cause.
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Anterograde amnesia
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Loss of memory of events occurring after brain injury or surgery; earlier and short-term memories generally intact.
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Retrograde amnesia
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Loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness.
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Dementia
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Degenerative brain processes diminish ability to remember and process information.
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Decay Theory
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The theory which explains forgetfulness being rapid at first (58% after 20 min. and 44% after 1 hour) then tapering off; Ebbinghaus's Curve of Forgetting.
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Encoding failure
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The situation in which information is not put into long-term memory.
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Interference
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Information or associations stored hinder the ability to remember it.
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Proactive interference
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Information or experiences already stored hinder memory.
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Retroactive interference
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New learning interferes with recall of previous learning.
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Motivated forgetting
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Protecting self from painful unpleasant memories via suppression or repression.
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Repression
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Removing memories of painful events from consciousness.
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Retrieval failure
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Not remembering something one is certain of knowing.
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Tip of the tongue phenomenon
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Knowing you have learned something but unable to retrieve it.
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Massed practice
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Learning in one long practice session without rest period.
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Spaced practice
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Learning in short practice sessions with rest periods in between.
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Cognition
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The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information.
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Reasoning
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A form of thinking where conclusions are drawn from a set of facts.
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Reasoning by deduction
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Reasoning from general to specific; drawing particular conclusions from general principles.
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Reasoning by induction
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General conclusions are drawn from particular facts.
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Imagery
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Representation in the mind of sensory experience.
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Concepts
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A mental category used to represent a class or group of objects, people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common characteristics or attributes (concepts help us order our world and to think and communicate with speed and efficiency).
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Formal concept
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A concept clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system.
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Natural concept
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Acquired through everyday perceptions and experiences.
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Decision-making
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The process of considering alternatives and choosing among them.
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Systematic decision making
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Process of considering alternatives and choosing among them.
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Bounded rationality
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Boundaries or limitations around the decision making process prevent it from being entirely logical.
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Elimination by aspects
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A decision-making approach in which alternatives are evaluated against criteria that have been ranked according to importance.
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Heuristics
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A rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in decision-making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness.
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Availability heuristic
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A cognitive rule of thumb that says that the probability of an event or the importance assigned to it is based on its availability in memory.
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Framing
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The way information is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or loss as the outcome.
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Representative heuristic
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Thinking strategy based on how closely a new object or situation is judged to resemble or match an existing prototype of that object or situation.
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Recognition heuristic
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Strategy in which decision-making stops as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognized.
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Intuition
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Rapidly formed judgments based on "gut feelings" or "instincts;" usually based on a mental representation of the gist of a body of information rather than on its factual details
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Anchoring
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Overestimation of the importance of a factor by focusing on it to the exclusion of other relevant factors.
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