Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
67 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Three Memory Processes
|
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
|
|
Levels of processing
|
Shallow (Structural)
Intermediate (Simple) Deep (Complex) |
|
Other Effects on Encoding
|
Elaboration
Visual Imagery Self-Referent Encoding |
|
3 Memory Systems
|
Short-term
Long-term Sensory |
|
Sensory Memory
|
Visual: Lasts only for fraction of a second
Auditory: Lasts about 2 seconds |
|
STM
|
Capacity of 5-9 bits of info
-Can increase bits of info by -CHUNKING -Lasts less than 30 seconds -Can be kept here via rehearsal |
|
LTM
|
-Unlimited capacity/somewhat permanent
-Info into LTM by rehearsal -2 subsystems, declarative and nondeclarative memory |
|
Implicit vs. Explicit
|
-Non intentional remembering
-Intentional remembering |
|
Declarative memory
|
-Explicit, LTM subsystem
-Stores info that can be remembered verbally or stored as images -EPISODIC: events in your life -SEMANTIC: general knowledge |
|
Non-declarative memory
|
-Implicit, LTM subsystem
-Motor skills, habits, simple reflexes |
|
Flashbulb Memories
|
-Having detailed vivid memories of important events, but aren't always accurate or more accurate than unimportant events
|
|
Memory System Process
|
Sensory Memory (transfer)>STM (transfer)><(retrieval)LTM
|
|
Measurements of Memory
|
Recall
Recognition Relearning Retention |
|
Causes of Forgetting
|
-Encoding failure
-Decay theory -Interference PROactive: can't retain new RETROactive: can't retain old -Consolidation failure (STM x> LTM) -Motivated forgetting, physiological (repression, amnesia) |
|
Misinformation effect
|
-Caused by SOURCE MONITORING or REALITY MONITORING
-Must be careful with use of eyewitness testimony |
|
Remembering
|
-Reconstruction: piece together highlights--> an account
-Schema: framework of knowledge in LTM -Semantic networks: link schemes/concepts |
|
Retrieval of Memories
|
-Cues (recognition)
-Reinstating context |
|
Serial Position Effects
|
-Primacy effects: remembering earlier info of a sequence because can be placed in LTM
-Recency effect: remembering info @ end of sequence because still in STM |
|
Improving Memory
|
-Organization
-Overlearning -Massed practice vs. Spaced Practice |
|
Mnemonics
Method of Loci Peg Words |
-Conscious strategies used to improve memory
-Placing items indifferent locations, construct walk -Associate items with bizarre images |
|
Levels-of-processing theory
|
Deeper levels of encoding allow for longer lasting memory
|
|
Conceptual hierarchy
|
Multiple-level classification system based on common properties among items
|
|
Amnesia types
|
Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories before injury
Anterograde amnesia: loss of memories for events after the injury |
|
Habituation
|
Learning not to respond to an unimportant event that occurs repeatedly
|
|
Classical conditioning
|
-Pavlov's dogs
-UCS, UCR, CS, CR -Pair UCS with CS to cause UCR -Ex. Meat powder(UCS) causes drooling(UCR), pair meat powder with tone(CS) to cause drooling |
|
Processes in Classical Conditioning (6)
|
Acquisition
Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Stimulus Generalization/Discrimination Higher Order Conditioning |
|
Biological significance of classical conditioning
|
-Allows learner to make appropriate response faster and more effectively
-Protective factor -Previously unimportant stimuli acquire some important properties |
|
Phobias
|
-Probably an example of conditional emotional response
-Unreasonable fear of specific objects or situations, learned through classical conditioning |
|
Operant conditioning
|
-Rewarding behaviours to increase frequency of the behaviour
-Skinner box |
|
The Law of Effect
|
Thorndike's idea that the consequences of a behaviour determining whether it's likely to be repeated
|
|
Three-Term Contingency
|
Environment instrumental in shaping behaviour
Discriminative stimuli--(sets the occasion for)-->A response--(which produces)-->Favourable consequence--(strengthens connection between stimulus and response)-->Discriminative stimulus |
|
Reinforcement
|
-+ or -
-Escape learning: response decreasing an aversive stimulus -Avoidance learning: response preventing an averisve stimulus |
|
Situational compliance
|
Only behave well when being monitored, revert to old behaviour when not being monitored
(Opposite: committed compliance) |
|
Positive vs. Negative reinforcement
|
-Being given smth desirable
-Taking away something undesirable |
|
Positive punishment vs. Response cost/Negative punishment
|
-Inflicting pain/something aversive
-Taking away something good |
|
Negative side-effects of punishment
|
-Risk of injury
-Inducing fear and hostility -Learning which response NOT to make -Doesn't teach desirable responses |
|
Intermittent reinforcement
|
Different reinforcement schedules
-VR (most successful) -VI -FR -FI |
|
Instinctive Drift
|
Instinctive rights override conditioning
|
|
Conditioned Taste Aversion
|
Learn to not eat something that caused food poisoning previously
|
|
Cognitive Processes in Conditioning
|
We aren't passive recipients of conditioning, we weigh the consequences
|
|
Observation and Imitation
|
-Attn, retention, imitation (can be deferred) and motivation
-Classical conditioning and operant behaviours can be acquired through observation |
|
Language
|
-Complicated system of rules allowing us to communicate verbally
-Genetic and environmental process |
|
Nature-Nurture debate
|
-BF Skinner, environment
-Chomsky, genetically prewired |
|
Nativist View
|
-Advanced by Chomsky about the biological basis for language acquisition
-Consists of rules only acquirable by humans -Language acquisition device: brain's specialized neural circuits for leaning grammar, Broca's area |
|
Interactionist theory
|
Nature + nurture contribute to acquisition of language
|
|
Phonology
|
Studies the sounds of speech
-Phonetics: study of different speech sounds |
|
Prelinguistid Period
|
Infant sound production developmental course:
1. Nonspeech sounds (burps, cries, whimpers) 2. Cooing, one syllable vowel sounds @ 2 months 3. Babbling: strong of identical sounds, consistent across cultures--> drifts towards language exposed to 4. Language comprehension, then production |
|
|
|
|
Semantics
|
-The study how children acquire words and meanings
-Children express first words at about 1 year old -18 months: vocab= about 50 words, can understand about 100 |
|
Naming explosion
|
Beginning to acquire words at a high rate, around 2 years old
|
|
Issues in Early Language
|
-OVEREXTENSION: using existing labels for things whose names they don't know
-UNDEREXTENSION: failing to use a label for an object for which the label is appropriate |
|
Grammar
|
-The study of the structural properties of language:
SYNTAX: word order INFLECTION: word endings modifying meaning INTONATION: can change meaning of verbal communication |
|
Telegraphic speech
|
Leaving out unnecessary function words
|
|
Environmental supports/Parental feedback
|
EXPANSIONS: repeating speech in which errors are corrected and elaboration
RECASTS: restating using a different structure CLARIFICATIONS: signal that the listening didn't understand |
|
Pragmatics
|
-The social use of language
-SOCIAL REFERENTIAL COMMUNICATION: speaker sends a message comprehended by the listening, audience-appropriate language -ex. turn taking |
|
Morphological knowledge and metalinguistic awareness
|
Develop during childhood and adolescence
-Understanding the meaning of morphemes making up words (ex. hop-less-ness, Genie didn't get this) -Reflective commentaries on language and its properties (ex. metaphors) |
|
Bilingualism
|
-Smaller vocabs in one language, combined vocabs average
-Higher scores on cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attn, metalinguistic awareness -Slower processing speed -2nd language easier to acquire early in life -Greater acculturation>>better acquisition |
|
3 types of problem solving
|
Of INDUCING STRUCTURE: series completion and analogy
Of ARRANGEMENT: task with restraints (string problem and anagrams) Of TRANSFORMATION: transform info. to achieve goal (water jar, hobbits and orcs) |
|
Barriers to effective problem solving
|
-Irrelevant info
-Functional fixedness -Mental set -Unnecessary constraints |
|
Problem Solving Approaches
|
-ALOGRITHM: trial-and-error, guarunteed solution
-HEURISTICS: shortcuts, solution not guaranteed, subgoals, working bkwds, analogies, representation |
|
Field dependence vs. independence
|
-Relying on external frames of reference, look at whole taking enviro @ face value
-Relying on internal frames of reference (Western cultures), don't believe everything we see, look at non-obvious explanations |
|
Holistic vs. analytic cognitive styles
|
-Look at whole pictures/context/relationships
-Look at the issue, focusing on the problem |
|
Simon
|
-Theory of bounded rationality
-We mane decisions only based on few facts, not whole, causing irrationality |
|
Additive and elimination strategies for making choices
|
-Rate on scare positives and negatives, make devision on highest rated decision
-Eliminate options based on unfavourable elements |
|
Risky decision making
|
Strategies with uncertainty
-Expected value: proba. of benefit -Subjective utility: outcome worth -Subjective proba: what you think the proba is |
|
Judging probas heuristics
|
-Availability heuristic (what comes to mind)
-Representativeness heuristic (prototype) -Ignoring base rates (ignore statisitcs) -Conjunction fallacy -Alternative outcomes effect (making judgement based on previously observed outcomes) |
|
Pitfalls
|
-Gambler's fallacy: belief of increasing odds of an event after it not happening for a while
-Law of small numbers: limited amount of info. -Overestimating improbable: plane vs. car crash -Confirmation bias and belief: wanting to confirm what we think regardless of reality -Overconfidence effect -Framing: making decisions based on language or context, what wording sounds best |