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140 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
women must invest heavily in offspring, minimum of 9 months, reproduce relatively few offspring
men do not have to invest greatly, are capable of reproducing many, possible cuckoldry (paternity uncertainty) |
Mating differences between men and women
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Resources:
Economic resoures Good financial prospects High social status Somewhat older Dependability and Stability |
Women's mate preferences
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fertile:
Youth Low WHR Healthy: Beauty as a health certificate Facial symmetry Clear Skin |
Men's mate preferences
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become more upset if brother's partner has sex with someone else and if sister's partner commits emotional infidelity.
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Jealousy differences
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________ show greater cortical activity when viewing children's faces that resemble them. (specifically in the left front cortex, this is the area linked with inhibiting negative responses)
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Men
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are higher in younger generations than in older ones.
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infidelity rates
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A change in behavior or belief in agreement with others
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Conformity
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Conforming to an implied or explicit request in public while privately disagreeing
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Compliance
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Conforming that also involves a change in belief
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Acceptance
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Conforming to an explicit request
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Obedience
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The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information. (i.e. we believe others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours)
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Informational Social Influence
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Subjects first estimate movement of pinpoint of light by themselves (autokinetic phenomenon)
Returned and completed task with 2 other on the 3 subsequent days |
Sherif Studies (1936)
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Motivation to be accurate increases informational social influence
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More on Norm Formation
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Suggestibility and Mass Hysteria (Epidemic Psychogenic Illness [EPI])
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Real life implication of Informational Social Influence
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Participants did task orally in groups
Other "subjects" were actually confederates. Easy task; control group had 98%+ accuracy Critical trials: confederates gave identical wrong answers. Would subjects give correct or group answer? |
Asch's classic studies (1937), on conforming to group pressure
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Informational social influence: they thought maybe they were wrong. (not a good explanation because in "private" condition they conformed much less.
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Why do people conform?
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The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked, accepted, or not rejected. (public compliance but not necessarily private acceptance)
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Normative social influence
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Size of the group
Having an ally When the group is cohesive or important. (the more cohesive [extent of "we-ness" of group] and the more important the group the more conformity) |
What influences conforming to group pressure
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The design
Participants arrived at the lab, ostensibly, with another participant (confederate; 47 yr. old, pleasant-looking, somewhat overweight fellow) Milgram wearing white lab coat Told study was on effect of punishment on learning Participants always assigned to be the teacher Confederate was the learner (word pair task) Teacher had to give escalating shocks for incorrect responses (start at 15 volts, increase by 15) |
Milgram's classic obedience study
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People (students, Psychiatrists, working people) estimated they would stop complying by 135 volts (strong shock);
No one said more than 300 When asked what other people would do estimated that 1 in 1,000 would “go all the way” (to 450 or XXX) |
Estimates of compliance (Milgram's study)
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Average shock was 360 volts
95% went past complaints of pain 80% went past 150 (when learner mentions heart problems) 65% went “all the way” |
Results (Milgram's study)
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Teacher chooses shock level = 3%
Teacher sees two other teachers rebel = 10% Experimenter leaves and ordinary person gives orders = 20% Experimenter leaves and gives orders by phone = 23% Teacher forcing learner's hand onto shock plate = 30% Teacher and learner in same room = 40% Office building instead of university = 48% Original setup = 65% |
Variations on Milgram's Experiment
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Rule et al. (1985) found that people recalled more people trying to persuade them than people they tried to persuade
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Persuasion in everyday life
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Obtaining information; object; permission
Getting someone to do favor/help; engage in an activity Changing someone’s opinion Buying or selling something Changing an existing relationship Changing someone’s personal habit(s) Helping a third party Getting someone to do something against their self-interest |
What are people persuading others about? (persuasion in everyday life)
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The method by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
Sometimes messages are “in your face.” Other times, messages can be subtle but pervasive. |
Persuasion
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Central route, Peripheral route
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Two routes to persuasion
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Audience = Analytical and motivated
Processing = High effort: elaborate, agree, or counter argue Persuasion = Cogent arguments evoke enduring agreement |
Central route to persuasion
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Audience = Not analytical or involved
Processing = low effort: use peripheral cues, rule-of-thumb heuristics Persuasion = Cues trigger liking and acceptance, often only temporarily |
Peripheral route to persuasion
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An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communication can cause attitude change: centrally or peripherally
Participants read a strong or weak arguments for the institution of comprehensive exams Strong: “Quality of education has increased at schools with these exams”. Weak: “Most students would welcome the challenge of an exam” Message came from an person with high or low expertise Expert: Princeton professor Non expert: High school student Topic was personally relevant or not Relevant: Start next year Not relevant: Start in 10 years |
Elaboration likelihood model (petty and cacioppo, 1986) (aka heuristic-systemic model [chaiken, 1987])
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People elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments.
Occurs when people have both the ability and motivation to listen carefully and think about the argument Compelling arguments evoke enduring persuasion |
Central route (two routes to persuasion)
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The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in the persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues (e.g., surface cues).
Occurs when we are busy, distracted, or uninvolved Positive cues trigger acceptance but may be only temporary |
Peripheral route (two routes to persuasion)
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Who: Source of communication
What: The nature of the communication How: Delivery of communication* To whom: The nature of the audience |
Yale attitude change approach
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Credible communicators are more persuasive
-Trustworthy -------Not trying to persuade; not in self-interest -Experts Attractive communicators are more persuasive -Physically attractive -Similar --------Especially if it is subjective preference |
Who says it (Yale attitude change approach)
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Fear arousing images are effective in persuading people
-More effective if paired with a protective strategy Messages that do not seem to be designed to persuade us are more effective Two-sided (presenting some counter arguments) communications are more effective -Especially if you can effectively counter argue and people initially were skeptical Messages that evoke humor or are paired with pleasant feelings are persuasive -Link message with good feelings -Humor |
What is said (Yale attitude change approach)
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Right ear advantage
Politely or with a scowl Primacy: All things being equal the information presented first is usually more persuasive Recency: Sometimes the information presented last can be more persuasive Face-to-face communication usually works best -Print media effective for complex issues -Mass media effective for minor issues -Mass media can work through face-to-face communication |
How it is delivered (Yale attitude change approach)
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All things being equal the information presented first is usually more persuasive
(Message #1 --> Message #2--------(time)--------Response, Message #1 accepted) |
Primacy
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Sometimes the information presented last can be more persuasive
(Message #1---------(time)---------Message #2 --> Response, Message #2 accepted) |
Recency
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Involved or uninvolved (see ELM)
Distracted audiences are often more persuaded, especially by peripheral cues Age: Attitudes that are not well formed are more persuadable Need for cognition Those high in need for cognition more often take the central route. Those low in need for cognition more often take the peripheral route. |
To whom is it said (Yale attitude change approach)
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How can we resist persuasion or teach or children to resist persuasion?
-Follow the principles of immunization **Give person a small challenge to their belief **Have them build a resistance to that challenge **Then they should be more prepared to fight off a “real” attack on their belief |
Attitude Inoculation
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Group members interact and influence one another (for more than a brief moment)
Interdependence or shared identity (an “us” quality) |
What is a group? (Group influence)
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People engaged in common activities or sharing the same space but having minimal direct interaction
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What is a collective? (Group Influence)
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-Early research was mixed
**Triplett (1898) found that children reeled fishing line faster in presence of others. **Other research found that the presence of others hindered learning nonsense syllables, completing a maze, and performing complex problems. |
How does the presence of others affect performance? (Mere presence of others)
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Cockroaches did a maze task
-Difficult maze -Easy maze Completed with our without “audience” -Alone -With other cockroaches in the stands |
The cockroach study (Zajonc et al, 1969)
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In the easy maze condition: Ran the maze faster with an audience present than when alone
In the difficult maze condition: Ran the maze faster alone than with an audience present |
Cockroach performance
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Presence of members of the same species lead to:
Increased arousal, which: Strengthened dominant response: For easy task- correct response, performance enhancement For difficult task- Incorrect response, performance impairment |
Zajonc Solution
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Mere presence of others:
-others present leads directly to arousal **no mediating mechanism Evaluation apprehension: -Presence of others only leads to arousal if they can evaluate us **Fear of negative evaluation leads to arousal. Distraction: -Presence of other leads to social facilitation only when they distract from task and create attentional conflict |
Why (Zajonc Solution)
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When you know that your contribution to the group cannot be distinguished, people may __________. That is, not contribute as much as they would if their individual contribution were distinguishable.
Individually observed = evaluation = social facilitation Lost in crowd = no evaluation = social loafing |
Free Riding
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Make task challenging, appealing, involving
Have people work with people they feel close to (high cohesion, less _______________) Notes. People in collectivistic cultures do less ____________. Women do less _____________. Why?? |
How to avoid social loafing
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The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people are in a crowd, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
-The more people in a lynch mob, the more brutal their attack -Warriors who use face paint and other identity hiding techniques are more vicious |
Deindividuation
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Deindividuation effects reflect the characteristics of the group norm:
-As personal identity goes down and internal controls are submerged, _______________ takes over -Consequences of losing yourself to a group identity depend on what group you lose it to |
Social Identity Model (Postmes and Spears, 1998)
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Group Size
Physical Anonymity Arousing or Distracting Activities Loss of self-awareness |
Things that affect deindividuation
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Are two (or more) heads better than one?
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It depends (group decisions)
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The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in group’s thinking
Why? -Persuasive arguments theory: **Exposure to new arguments; more confidence -Social comparison: **If believing X is good, double X is great; distinguish self in group -Social categorization: **Distinguishing group from other groups |
Group Polarization
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Exposure to new arguments; more confidence
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Persuasive arguments theory (Group Polarization)
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If believing X is good, double X is great; distinguish self in group
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Social Comparison (Group Polarization)
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Distinguishing group from other groups
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Social Categorization (Group Polarization)
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The kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner.
-Large impact on many fields -Most evidence is case studies of historical decisions -Has been empirical support for many of the factors suggested by Janis |
Groupthink (Janis, 1971)
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The group is highly cohesive, valued, and attractive (i.e. people want to be members).
The group is highly isolated and protected from hearing alternative viewpoints. The group has a directive leader who controls the discussion and makes his or her wishes known. The group is under stress (perceives threats). The group has poor decision making procedures (i.e. no standard method to consider alternatives). |
Antecedents of Groupthink
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Illusion of invulnerability
Belief in the moral correctness of the group Stereotyped views of outgroup Self-censorship Direct pressure on dissenters to conform Illusion of unanimity Mindguards |
Symptoms of groupthink
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Incomplete survey of alternatives
Failure to examine risks of the favored alternatives Poor information search Failure to develop contingency plans |
Leads to defective decision making
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Avoid isolation, consult with outsiders
Reduce conformity pressures; leader should not take a stand early; keep open mind Establish strong norm for critical review; assign a devil’s advocate; second chance |
Preventing Groupthink
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One dramatic finding from developmental psychology (Plomin & Daniels, 1987) is that two children in the same family are, on average,
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as different from one another as two children selected at random
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Evolutionary psychologists study
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Both physical and psychological traits
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According to Brown (1987), in general, who is more likely to initiate intimacy?
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The higher status person
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Norms _________ behavior
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Prescribe
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Given the logic of evolutionary psychology, we can assume our distant ancestors preferred _______ foods.
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nutritious and energy-providing
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Research on the differences in men and women show all EXCEPT
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men tend to be more autocratic, women democratic
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Which statement about social norms is FALSE?
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Social norms are not affected by culture
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Evolutionary psychologists suggest that males are sexually assertive, while females are more selective of sexual partners because?
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Each strategy is likely to promote gene survival
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Maccoby (2002) found that girls tend to ____________ compared to boys.
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talk more intimately
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What cultural differences or similarities were found in the research on pedestrian interaction in the U.S. and Japan?
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Americans were more likely to greet the research confederate who greeted them
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Smoreda and Licoppe (2000) reported that when on the telephone, women's conversations with
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friends are longer than are men's
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Research on the Big 5 personality traits indicates that
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differences among these traits in different countries is quite small
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During a conversation, men are more likely than women to do all of the following EXCEPT?
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Smile more
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If we were to conclude that Milgram's obedient participants were particularly hostile and aggressive people, we would be
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committing the fundamental attribution error
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After hearing a great deal about the benefits of soy products from your friends, you decide to drink soy milk instead of cow's milk. You behavior is an example of
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Acceptance
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A classmate across the room yawns and then several other students yawn. This is an example of
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Social contagion
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The spread of bodily complaints within a school or workplace with no organic basis for the symptoms is called
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Mass hysteria
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Sherif is to the study of __________ as Asch is to the study of _________.
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Norm formation; conformity
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If you clean your room only because your parents order you to, your behavior is a form of
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Obedience
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How did Asch's studies of conformity differ from those of Sherif?
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Asch's participants could clearly see the correct judgement
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_____________ sometimes follows compliance
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Acceptance
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The experimenter in Milgram's study used all EXCEPT which of the following verbal prods to encourage participants to continue?
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"you will be penalized if you refuse to go on."
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In Western individualistic societies the word "conformity" carries
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A negative value judgement
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According to Myers, an unchallenged assumption in individualistic Western nations is that ___________ is good and ___________ is bad.
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Individualism; conformity
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In follow-up experiments to his initial study, Milgram made the learner's protests more compelling by having him complain of a heart condition, then scream and plead for release, and finally refuse to answer. With this added condition,
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the majority of participants still fully obeyed the experimenter's demands.
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A communicator is said to be ____________ when he or she is perceived as both and expert and trustworthy.
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credible
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According to the text, the factor that determines if we call attempts at persuasion "education" or "propaganda" is whether or not...
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we believe them
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Which of the following must take place before a message is likely to persuade?
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attention to the message
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Which route to persuasion is most likely to create long-lasting attitudes and behavioral changes?
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central
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American's support for the Iraq war increased after the war began mainly because of the....
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persuasive messages in the U.S. media
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The _________ effect occurs when we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.
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Sleeper
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An audience is more likely to perceive a speaker as sincere when
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the speaker argues against their own self-interest
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Sally is interested in purchasing a DVD player. She decides to consult a magazine devoted to reviewing the quality of home electronics. After reading a number of articles stating the pros and cons of each model, she decides on a DVD player. Sally has been persuaded to purchase this particular DVD player because of the _______ route to persuasion.
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central
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Research has found that ___________ speakers are rate as more objective, intelligent, and knowledgeable
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fast
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Brock (1965) found that paint store customers were more influenced by the testimony of an
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ordinary person who recently bought the same amount of paint as them.
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According to Aronson (1997), when fear aroused by a persuasive message is revelant to a pleasurable activity (e.g. sex or smoking) the result is often
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denial.
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In your marketing class, your assignment is to create an advertisement that will encourage people to buy condom X over condom Y. Given your knowledge of persuasion, which strategy would be most effective?
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an ad that reads "AIDS kills" along with a suggestion that condom X prevents it.
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When two messages are back to back, followed by a time gap, the _________ effect usually occurs.
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primacy
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Consistent with the social facilitation effect, Michaels and his colleagues (1982) found that when good pool players were observed, they did _______ than when they did not know they were being observed.
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Better
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Under the definition that is in the text, which of the following is NOT group?
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Five people riding the city bus
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Ingham (1974) found that when blindfolded participants thought they were pulling a tug of war with other participants, they ____________ than when they thought they were pulling alone
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Pulled less
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When people learn about others' positions, without making a prior commitment and without discussing their own position, they will
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adjust their responses to be more in line with others' position
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Sam has a tendency to contribute little effort to group assignments, as he thinks others will be sure to pick up the slack in an effort to get a good grade. Social psychologists would call Sam a
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Free rider
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People in groups will loaf less when the
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task is challenging, appealing, or involving.
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You are hesitant to ask questions in class because you assume everyone else understands and you would therefore seem foolish. Your thinking best exemplifies
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Pluralistic ignorance
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Increased arousal enhances performance
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on dominant responses
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According to your text, people in ____________ cultures exhibit less social loafing than people in ____________ cultures.
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collectivistic; individualistic
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Research on brainstorming reveals that people working __________ will generate _____________ good ideas.
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alone; more
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Which of the following is a comment you are LEAST likely to hear being made within a group characterized by groupthink?
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"Let's weigh all the alternatives carefully before we proceed"
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Which of the following is NOT a prescriptive strategy to prevent groupthink from developing?
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Group members should be kept together as one unit and not divided into separate discussion subgroups.
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According to conformity research, a group's social power is deflated when
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just one other person also differs from the majority
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People tend to have different social and political attitudes depending on their age because the attitudes older people adopted when they were young persist through life largely unchanged. This refers to the _____________ explanation for how age plays a role in persuasion
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Generational
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The best way to improve individual performance by a group is to
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evaluate each person individually
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Your mother has commented on how little time your older sister, who recently married, spends on housework, as compared to what she herself used to spend when she was a newlywed. Your mother's comment reflects how gender roles
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Vary over time
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Bearman and Brueckner (2001) found that teens who made a public virginity-until-marriage pledge became somewhat more likely to remain sexually abstinent than similar teens who do not make the pledge. This is an example of how
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public commitment reduces susceptibility to social influence
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The text suggests that the extremism of terrorist organizations, such as those involved in the September 11th attacks on the United States, is very likely the result of the naturally occurring process of
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Group Polarization
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Researchers found that difficult messages are most persuasive when _______, and easy messages are most persuasive when _______.
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Written; videotaped
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Research on the Big 5 personality traits have been shown to be universal. Which is NOT one of the five?
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Shy
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High school students Aisha & Jared have been dating each other casually. When Aisha’s parents tell her to stop seeing Jared & ask her to go out with “nicer boys,” Aisha announces that she & Jared are actually “in love” & have decided to go steady. Aisha’s behavior most likely illustrates the effects of
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Psychological reactance
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Which of the following is an example of group polarization in one's community?
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Gang delinquency
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Evolutionary psychology has been criticized for
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Hindsight biases
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In experiments, people have been found to conform more when they must __________ than when they must ___________.
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Respond publicly; write down their responses in private
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Deindividuation is _____________ likely when self-awareness is ___________.
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Less; High
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People with ___________ self-esteem are the easiest to influence
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moderate
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People who are made self-aware by acting in front of a mirror or TV camera have been found to
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behave more consistently with their attitudes
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The names we choose for our children often express our
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desire for uniqueness
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According to the text and lecture, women of all ages tend to prefer men ____________ themselves.
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the same age as
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When giving a speech in class, you spend most of the first five minutes wondering what your audience is thinking of you. This is a good example of _____ instead of thinking about what you are saying.
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driven by distraction
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Rivalry between groups is often most intense when the groups
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closely resemble each other
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According to Festinger (1954), it is human nature to want to evaluate our opinions by
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comparing ourselves with others
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The Bennington College study revealed that
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views embraced at an impressionable time often survive a lifetime of experience
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Which of the following is a universal norm according to the textbook?
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Incest
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In light of the Milgram studies, which of the following is NOT one of the factors that determined obedience?
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The victim's similarity to the teacher
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Maggie favors the death penalty. In discussing this issue with some like-minded classmates, she hears arguments for this position that she has never considered before. After the discussion, her opinion is more extreme. This outcome is best explained by
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informational influence processes
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Twin and adoption studies indicate that genetic influences explain approximately ___ percent of individual variations in personality traits.
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50
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A cult has all of the following characteristics EXCEPT
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isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture.
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When Regina returned to the U.S. after two years in Madagascar, she felt uncomfortable and out of place. She was experiencing
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Reentry distress
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Evolutionary explanations of gender differences have been criticized because they
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do not explain cultural changes in behavior that occur over relatively short periods of time
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Compared to people in individualistic countries, those in collectivist countries are
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more responsive to others' influence
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