Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
233 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are somesthetic senses?
|
Sensations produced by the skin, muscles, joints, viscera, and organs of b
|
|
what are the three types of somesthetic senses?
|
Skin senses (touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold)
Kinesthetic senses(receptors in muscles/joints that detect position/movement) Vestibular senses (receptors in inner ear for balance, gravity, acceleration) |
|
Pain
What is the warning system |
Sharp, acute pain that is carried by large nerve fibers
Signals that body damage may be occurring (e.g., cuts, burns, etc.) Allows us to take steps to prevent injury |
|
Pain
what is the reminding system |
Slower, nagging, aching pain that is carried by small nerve fibers
Is typically more widespread (e.g., lower back pain) Reminds the brain that the body has been injured |
|
Sensory conflict theory
|
Motion sickness occurs when there is a mismatch between sensations from the eyes, the vesitbular system, and the body
-e.g., after spinning and stipping, fluid in semicircular canals is still spinning, but head is not |
|
Sensory adaption
|
Sensory receptors respond less with constant exposure to a given stimulus
|
|
Gate control theory
|
Pain messages pass through neural "gates" in the spinal cord
-Some messages are blocked while others are allowed to pass through and reach the brain -If gate is closed by one pain message, other messages may not be able to pass through |
|
Counterirritation
|
A form of "gate control" in which messages from large, fast nerve fibers close the spinal pain gate directly
-Prevents slower, "reminding system" pain from reaching the brain -This may explain acupuncture's efficacy |
|
Selective attention
|
Awarding priority to a particular incoming sensory message by voluntarily focusing on a specific sensory input
-can think of as s bottleneck (or narrowing) in the information chennel between the senses and the brain --When one message enters the bottleneck, it prevents other messages from passing through --This bottleneck can be widened or narrowed |
|
Size constancy
|
The perceived size of an object remains the same, even though the size of its image on the retina has changed
|
|
Shape constancy
|
The perceived shape of an object is unaffected by changes in its retinal image
|
|
Depth perception
|
The ability to visualize 3-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances
-Critical for most everyday tasks |
|
Depth cues
|
Features of the environment that provide info about distance and 3-D space
|
|
Binocular cues
|
depth cues requiring two eyes
|
|
Monocular cues
|
depth cues requiring just one eye
|
|
Retinal disparity (Binocular cue)
|
A discrepancy in the images that reach the right and left eyes
-Each eye receives a slightly different view of the world |
|
Stereoscopic vision (Bincocular depth cue)
|
3-D sight that results from the fusion of these two images(retinal disparity)
|
|
Convergence(Binocular depth cue)
|
Wwhen you look at an object that lies within 50 feet of you, your eyes have to turn inward(converge) in order to bring the object into focus
|
|
Accomodation(Binocular depth cue)
|
The bending of the eye's lens in order to focus on nearby objects
|
|
Pictorial depth cues(Monocular depth cue)
|
Features found in paintings, drawing, and photos that provide info about space, depth, and distance
-These cues give the illusion of 3-d dimensions in a two-dimensional space |
|
The Moon Illusion
|
Perceiving the moon as larger when it is low in the sky
-Occurs because there are many depth cues on the horizon(e.g. houses, trees, landscape) and very few depth cues in the night sky -Can apply to other objects besides the moon |
|
The Ponzo Illusion
|
We judge the size of an object based on its background
-This helps to explain the Moon illusion |
|
Perceptual Construction
|
A mental model of external events
-Bottom-up processing: Using low-level features (e.g., individual components, etc.) to create perception -Top-down processing: Basing perceptions on existing knowledge that organizes features into a unified whole |
|
Perceptual Learning
|
Changes in the brain that alter how we process sensory info
-Past experience plays a key role in this |
|
Illusion
|
A misleading or distored perception
|
|
Hallucination
|
An imaginary sensation, in which people perceive objects or evens that do not exist
|
|
Reality testing
|
The process of obtaining additional information to check the accuracy of perceptions
|
|
Consciousness
|
All of the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings that you are aware of at any given moment
|
|
Waking consciousness
|
Normal, clear, organized alertness
|
|
Altered state of consciousness (ASC)
|
A condition marked by changes in the quality and pattern of mental activity
-May be caused by substance use, sensory overload, sleep loss, high feve, monotonous stimulation, (e.g., a long drive), etc. |
|
Biological/Circadian rythyms
|
SLEEP- consistent, cyclical pattern of biological activity that repeats itself roughly every 24 hours
-Explains jet lag and other travel-related symptoms -Is influenced by externam time markers such as daylight, darkness, etc |
|
Sleep deprivation
|
Sleep loss; being prevented from getting the needed or desired amount of sleep
-Can normally be corrected by one good night of sleep |
|
Hypersomnia
|
Excessive daytime sleepiness
|
|
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
|
A device that detects, amplifies, and records brain waves(electrical activity in the brain)
|
|
Sleep stages
|
Levels of sleep identified by change in brain wave patterns and behavior
|
|
Beta waves
|
-Small, fast brain waves
-Are associated with alertness |
|
Alpha waves
|
-Large, slow brain waves
-Are associated with relaxation and falling asleep |
|
Delta waves
|
-Largest, slowest waves
-Are associated with deepest sleep |
|
Stages of Sleep
Stage 1 |
Light sleep; heart rate slows and breathing is irregular; brain waves are small and irregular
-May be marked by hypnic jerk(twitching of reflexes) |
|
Stages of Sleep
Stage 2 |
Body temperature drops; sleep spindles(bursts of brain-wave activity) appear
-This marks the true boundary of sleep |
|
Stages of Sleep
Stage 3 |
Period of deeper sleep marked by large, slow delta waves
|
|
Stages of Sleep
Stage 4 |
Deepest sleep, almost pure delta waves; occurs within an hour of falling asleep
|
|
REM sleep
|
-Period of notbale brain activity marked by fast, irregular EEG patterns (-90 minutes/night)
-Associated w/ vivid dreams, imagery. emotions -Body is typically immobilized during REM sleep |
|
Non-REM sleep
|
-Typically a dream-free zone
-Increases following physical exertion and may help the body recover from fatigue |
|
Temporary insomnia
|
Brief period of insomnia triggered by stress, worry, or excitement
|
|
Chronic insomnia
|
Sleeplessness that persists for more than 3 weeks
|
|
Drug-dependency insomnia
|
Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills
|
|
Sleepwalking
|
Occurs during non-REM sleep
|
|
Sleeptalkng
|
Occurs during non-REM sleep
|
|
Nightmares
|
Bad dreams that occur during REM sleep
|
|
Night terrors
|
A state of panic that occurs during non-REM sleep; may include hallucinations
-Most common during childhood |
|
Sleep apnea
|
Breathing interruptions, lasting from 20 seconds to 2 minutes; is associated with snoring
-Causes hypersomnia -Treatments: Surgery, sleeping mask, weight loss |
|
SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)
|
The sudden, unexplained death of an infant that otherwise appeared to be healthy
-Occurs in infants up to 6 months old -Positioning infants to sleep on their backs is beleived to prevent SIDS |
|
How many times per night do most people dream?
|
4-5
|
|
REM rebound
|
Occurrence of extra REM sleep following REM sleep deprivation
|
|
Functions of REM sleep
|
-Facilitates processing of emotional events
-Helps us sort and integrate memories -Assists with problem-solving efforts |
|
Psychodynamic Dream Theory (Freud)
|
Emphasizes internal conflicts and unconscious forces
|
|
Wish Fulfillment
|
Freudian belief that dreams are expressions of unconscious desires
-Much evidence to refute this |
|
Dream Symbols
|
Images in dreams that have a deeper symbolic meaning (e.g., images that represent hidden ideas, desires, emotions, etc.)
|
|
Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
|
-Dream content is influenced by motor commands in the brain that occur during sleep, but are not carried out
-Is reflected in dreams that involve movement (e.g., running, floating, flying, etc.) |
|
Psychoactive drugs
|
Substances that are capable of altering attention, memory, judgment, self-control, mood, perception, sense of time, etc.
-Influence activity of brain cells by mimicking or altering neurotransmitters -they activate the brain's reward circuitry |
|
Stimulant
|
A substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system
-e.g., caffeine, nicotine, hallucinogens, cocaine, amphetamines |
|
Depressant
|
A substance that decreases activity in the body and nervous system
-e.g., alcohol, narcotics, barbiturates |
|
Physical dependence
|
Physical addiction, which is indicated by the following conditions:
-Drug tolerance: Reduced physical response to the drug with repeated exposure (more of the drug is required to achieve the same effect) -Withdraw symptoms: physical illness that follows the withdrawal of a drug |
|
Psychological dependence
|
Dependence that is based on emotional/psychological needs
|
|
Amphetamines
|
Synthetic stimulants that excite the nervous systemk rapidly produce drug tolerance
-accelerate the use of bodily resources but do not supply energy -Large does cause nausea, vomiting, dangerously high blodd pressure, heart attacks, and strokes -Street forms such as crystal meth also cause lesions, depression, tooth decay etc. |
|
Amphetamine psychosis
|
Loss of contact w/ reality because of amphetamine use
|
|
Cocaine
|
Powerful central nervous system stimulant drived from leaves of coca plantl was once used as an anesthetic; is highly addictive
-Produces feelings of alertness, euphoria, well-being, power, unlimited energy, and pleasure -Differes from amphetamines in that effects last only 15-30 minutes -Withdrawal causes depression, fatigure, anxiety, paranoia, and anhedonia(inability to feel pleasure) |
|
MDNA (Ecstasy)
|
Chemically similar to amphetamine; is created via small variations in a drug's structure
-Produces rush of energy, makes ppl feel closer to others, and heightens sensory experiences -Causes brain to release extra serotonin -May cause severe liver damage, hyperthermia (elevated body temp), and heart arrythmias, which can lead to collapse |
|
Caffeine
|
Supresses fatigue or drowsiness and enhances feelings of alertness
-Most frequently used psychoactive drug in America -Present in soda, chocolate, coffee, tea, energy drinks -Causes brain to release extra serotonin -May cause sweating, verbosity, tinnitus, tremors |
|
Caffeinism
|
Excessive use of caffeine that leads to physiological dependence and other discomforts (e.g., insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, racing hearbeat)
|
|
Nicotine
|
Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco
-Is third most frequently used psychoactive drug in the U.S. (behind caffeine and alcohol) -Can cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, etcl large doses can cause convulsions, respiratory failure, and death -Is associated w/ many different cancers |
|
Barbiturates
|
Sedatives that inhibit brain activity
-May be prescribed for sleep disorders and anxiety (e.g., pentrobarbital, amobarbital, secobarbital, tuinal) -Overdoes can cause loss of consciousness, depressed heart rate and breathing, and death |
|
GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate)
|
Central nervous system depressant that relaxes and sedates; is a combo of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner
-May result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and loss of consciousness, breathing failure, and death -Addictive and deadly |
|
Tranquilizers
|
A substance that reduces anxiety and relieves tension (e.g. Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Librium)
-Can cause drowsiness, shakiness, and confusion -Rohypnol(roofies)=cheap form of Valium |
|
Alcohol
|
A substance that reduces inhibitons and produces feelings of relaxation and euphoria
-Large amounts impair the brain to the point of loss of consciousness |
|
Binge drinking
|
Consuming 5 or more drinks in a short period of time(4 drinks for women)
|
|
Drug interaction
|
A combined effect of two drugs in which one drug intensifies the effect of another
-Often lead to fatal overdoses -Combining alcohol w/ barbiturates or tranquilizers is especially risky |
|
Learning
|
Relatively permanent or stable behavioral change that results from experience
|
|
Reinforcement
|
Any event that increases the probability that a behavior will occur
|
|
Response
|
Any identifiable behavior
-Internal responses(e.g., heart rate, breathing) -Observable responses(e.g., blinking, smiling) |
|
Antecedents
|
Events that precede a response
|
|
Consequences
|
Events that follow a response
|
|
Classical Conditioning(Pavlovian)
|
-Begins w/ a stimulus that reliably triggers a response
Learning that occurs when reflex responses are associated w/ new stimuli -e.g. salivating when you hear the doorbell(signaling that the Papa John's delivery guy has arrived) |
|
Unconditioned stimulus
|
A stimulus that innately produces a response (no learning is involved)
-e.g., meat powder |
|
Unconditioned response
|
Innate reflex response that results elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
-e.g., salivation in the presence of meat powder |
|
Neutral stimulus
|
A stimulus that does no provoke a response
-e.g., sound of bell ringing |
|
Conditioned stimulus
|
A stimulus that produces a response because it has been repeatedly linked w/ an unconditioned stimulus
-e.g., the bell ringing(when paired w/ meat powder) |
|
Conditioned response
|
A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
-e.g., salivation in response to the bell ringing |
|
Acquisition (training)
|
The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced
-e.g., linking the sound of the bell w/ meat powder |
|
Higher order conditioning
|
Conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is now used to reinforce further learning
-The conditioned stimulus is now used in place of the unconditioned stimulus(b/c response to it has become so well learned) -e.g.,linking clapping sound w/ sound of bell |
|
Informational view
|
The process of looking for relationships between events
|
|
Expectancy
|
Expectations about how events are interconnected
-e.g., expect a tetanus shot to hurt; thus, your muscles tense up right beforehand |
|
Extinction
|
The weakining of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement
-e.g., if Pavlov's dogs repeatedly hear the bell in isolation (w/ no meat powder following it), eventually salivation will cease -It takes time to reverse the conditioning |
|
Spontaneous recovery
|
Sudden reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
-e.g., dog abruptly begins to salivate to the bell again |
|
Stimulus Generalization
|
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus
-e.g., responding to a phone ringing when the conditioning stimulus was a bell |
|
Stimulus Discrimination
|
The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
-e.g., learning to responding differently to different types of bells (alarm clock, doorbell, microwave, etc. |
|
Phobia
|
An unrealistic, irrational fear that persists in the absence of danger
|
|
Conditioned emotional response
|
An emotional response that has been linked to a previously non-emotional stimulus by classical conditioning
|
|
Desensitization
|
Gredual exposure to feared stimuli while the person is calm and relaxed
-Eventually extinguishes fears, phobias, etc. |
|
Vicarious classical conditioning
|
Classical conditioning that occurs by ovserving another person's reactions to a particular stimulus
-This may influence young children's likes/dislikes fears, attitudes, etc. |
|
Operant conditioning
|
Learning that is based on the consequences (outcomes) of responding
-Responses may be followed by rewards, punishment, or nothing -These outcomes determine the likelihood of the response occurring in the future |
|
Law of Effect
|
The probability of a response occurring is altered by the effect that it has
-Responses that lead to positive effects (rewards) tend to be repeated -Responses that produce undesirable results are not repeated |
|
Operant reinforcer
(Positive Reinforcement) |
Any outcome that follows a response and consistently increases the probability of it occurring again
-What is reinforcing for one person may not necessarily be reinforcing for another person |
|
When is operant reinforcement most effective?
|
When it rapidly follows the desired response
-The response and reinforcement must occur close enough in time that they appear to be related |
|
Supersitious behaviors
|
Behavior that is repeated because it appears to produce reinforcement, even though in actuality the behavior is unnecessary
-e.g., the various rituals basketball players display at the free throw line |
|
Shaping
|
Gradually molding responses to fit a desired pattern
-Successive approximations: Rewarding each step that leads up to the desired response -e.g., to teach rat to press a bar: -First reward him for facing the bar -Then reward him for taking a step toward the bar -etc |
|
Operant extinction
|
Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away
|
|
Positive reinforcement
|
Wwhen a response is followed by a reward or other positive event
|
|
Negative reinforcement
|
When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event or the cessation of discomfort
-e.g., taking aspirin to make your headace go away; hitting the snooze to make the alarm clock stop beeping |
|
Punishment
|
When a response is followed by an aversive (undesirable) consequence
-e.g., spanking a child for bad behavior |
|
Response cost
|
Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made
-e.g., taking away a child's allowance for bad behavior |
|
Learning
|
Relatively permanent or stable behavioral change that results from experience
|
|
Response
|
Any identifiable behavior
|
|
Reinforcement
|
Any event that increases the probability that a behavior will occur
|
|
Conditioning
|
The process by which learning occurs
|
|
Primary reinforcers
|
Non-learned reinforcers; usually satisfy physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sex, etc.)
|
|
Secondary reinforcers
|
A learned reinforcer (e.g., praise, approval, success, money, grades, etc.)
|
|
Token reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
|
Tangible secondary reinforcer(e.g., poler chips, credits, gold stars, punch card, etc.)
|
|
Social reinforcer
|
Reinforcement based on provision of social rewards (e.g., attention, approval, affection)
|
|
Feedback (aka knowledge of results)
|
Information about the effects a response has had (e.g., sound effects in video games)
-Significantly improves learning and performance -Especially important for complex skills (e.g., learning a new language, playing sports, learning music, etc.) |
|
Continuous reinforcemtn
|
Every correct response is followed by reinforement
|
|
Partial reinforcement
|
A pattern in which some (but not all) responses are reinforced
|
|
Schedule of reinforcement
|
A plan for determining which responses will be reinforced
|
|
Partial reinforcement effect
|
Partial reinforcement produces responses that are highly robust and therefore resistant to extinction
-Is due primarily to the inability to predict which responses will be reinforced (e.g., playing slot machines) |
|
What are Ratio schedules based on?
|
the number of correct responses that occurs between reinforcemtns
|
|
Fixed ratio schedule
|
Reinforcement is given after a set number of correct responses
-e.g., reinforcement for every 5th correct response, etc. |
|
Variable ratio schedule
|
The number of correct responses required for reinforcement varies w/in a given range
-e.g., reinforcement for every 3rd-7th correct responses(Everages to every 5th response, but actual number varies) -Is less predictable and therefore more effective |
|
What are interval schedules based on?
|
The passage of times that occurs between reinforcements
|
|
Fixed interval schedul
|
The first correct response that occurs after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced
-e.g., correct responses that occur at least 30 seconds after the last reinforced response are reinforced |
|
Variable interval schedule
|
The first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed is reinforced
-e.g., correct responses that occur an average of 30 seconds after the last reinforced response are reinforced but actual time interval varies |
|
Punisher
|
Any consequence that reduces the frequency of a target behavior (e.g., spanking, reprimad, fines, loss of priveleges, probation, etc.
|
|
What are the three keys to effective punishment?
|
Timing, Consistency, Intensity
|
|
Aversive stimulus
(Punishment Concepts) |
Stimulus that is uncomfortable or unpleasant (e.g., excessive heat/cold, shock, etc.)
|
|
Escape Learning
(Punishment Concepts) |
Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus
|
|
Avoidance learning
(Punishment Concepts) |
Learning to make a response to postpone or prevent discomfortp
|
|
Memory
|
An active system that receives, encodes, stores, alters, and recovers info
|
|
Encoding
|
The conversion of info into a form in which it can be stored in memory
|
|
Storage
|
The process by which info is retained for future use
|
|
Retrieval
|
The process of recovering info that has been stored in memory
|
|
Sensory Memory
|
The intitial memory process; retaines an exact copy of what you see/hear for a few seconds or less
|
|
Icon
|
A fleeting mental image that retains visual info for less than a second
|
|
Echo
|
A brief flurry of activity in the auditory sytem that sores sound for up to 2 seconds
|
|
Selective attention
|
Focusing on a selected portion of a sensory input
-This determines what info will move on to short-term memory |
|
Short-Term Memory (STM)
|
aka working memory(mental scratchpad that is used for thinking and problem solving)
-Holds small amounts of info briefly -You determine what info is placed in STM by focusing on that info(selective attention) |
|
Storing phonetically
(STM) |
Short-term memories are most often stored by sound
-Very sensitive to interruption or interference |
|
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
|
Stores info relatively permanently
-unlimited capactiy -Info is stored on the basis of its meaning and importance -The more you know, the easier it is to add new info to LTM -Is easiest to link info from STM with existing info in LTM |
|
Digit span (STM)
|
Test of attention and STM
-How many digits can you remember? -e.g., read these numbers once, then close your eyes and see how many you can remember in order |
|
Information bits (STIM)
|
Meaningful units of information(e.g., letters, numbers, words, or phrases)
|
|
Recoding (STM)
|
Reorganizing/modifying information in STM
|
|
Information Chunks
|
Information bits that are grouped into larger chunks
-chunking |
|
Maintenance rehearsal
|
Silently repeating or mentally reviewing information to keep it in STM
|
|
Elaborative rehearsal
|
Linking new info to knowledge that is already in LTM
|
|
Constructive processing (LTM)
|
"Gaps" in memory are filled in using logic, reasoning, or new information
|
|
Pseudomemories (LTM)
|
False memories that a person believes are true or accurate
-Can be a serious problem in eyewitness testimony |
|
Network model
|
A model of memory that view it as an organized system of linked idea
-May be arranged according to rules, categories, images, similarity, meaning, etc. -Closer links are remembered faster than further ones. |
|
Procedural memory (LTM)
|
Memory for learned skills, tasks, and actions
-e.g., riding a bike, swinging a golf club, driving, making an omelette |
|
Declaritive memory (LTM)
|
Memory for specific factual infomration
-e.g., names, faces, dates, ideas, trivia |
|
Semantic memory (LTM)
|
A mental dictionary or encylopedia of basic knowledge about the world
-e.g., basic language, names of objects, months of the year, basic math skills, etc. |
|
Episodic memory (LTM)
|
Autobiographical record of life events that are linked w/ specific times and places
-e.g., first date, first speeding ticket, your most recent birthday, what you did yesterday |
|
Tip-of-the-tongue state
|
The feeling that certain info is available but not quite retrievable
|
|
Feeling of knowing
|
A preliminary sense that you will be able to remember something
-e.g., when game show contestants' faces light up before they hit the buzzer |
|
Recall
|
Requires direct retrieval of facts or info with minimal external ecues (e.g., short answer questions)
-Serial position effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list but forget the items in the middle |
|
Recognition
|
Requires correct identification of learned information (e.g., multiple choice questions)
-Recognition is typically superior to recall |
|
Relearning
|
The process of learning information again that was learned at an earlier time
-Memory traces allow this information to be learned more quickly than completely new info -Savings score: Amount of time saved when relearning info (vs. learning new info) |
|
Explicit memory
|
Past experiences or info that is consciously brought to mind
-e.g., info that you are aware of knowing |
|
Implicit memory
|
Past experiences or info that lies outside of awareness
-e.g., info that you do not realize you know |
|
Priming
|
Using cues to activate hidden memories and facilitate retrieval of info
-e.g., providing the first letters of each word in a solution |
|
Mental images
|
Mental pictures or visualizations that aid memory
-How many stoplights are there between your dorm and your favorite pub? |
|
Eidetic imagery
|
The ability to retain an image and to "project" it mentally for a short period
-Most common in childhood; fades by adulthood -Chimps are apparently superior at this |
|
Curve of forgetting
|
A graph that displays the amount of info remembered after varying lengths of time
-Forgetting is rapid at first, then slowly declines -Meangingful info is retained longer |
|
Encoding failure
|
Failure to store enough info for a memory to be created (encoded) in the first place
|
|
Memory decay
|
Loss of memories due to the fading or weakening of memory traces (changes in nerve cells or brain activity)
-Affects sensory memory and STM |
|
Disuse
|
Memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved often enough ("Use it or lose it")
|
|
Memory Cues
|
Details associated w/ a memory that may be used to enhance retrieval
|
|
State-dependent learning
|
When your bodily state provides a cue for later retrieval
-Memory retrieval may be enhanced when your bodily states during learning and retrieval match |
|
Memory cues
|
Details associated w/ a memory that may be used to enhance retrieval
|
|
State-dependent learning
|
Wwhen your bodily states provides a cue for later retrieval
-Memory retrieval may be enhacned when your bodily states during learning and retrieval match |
|
Interference
|
The tendency for new memories to impede the retrieval of older memories, and vice versa
|
|
Repression
|
The act of unconsviously pushing unwanted memories outside of awareness
|
|
Supression
|
An active, conscious effor to push something out of your awareness
|
|
Flashbulb memory
|
Memories created during times of high emotion that are especially vivid
-May be positive or negative |
|
Consolidation
|
The process by which long-term memories are formed
-It takes a certain amount of time to move memories from STM to LTM -Sleep helps to consolidate info in memory |
|
Hippocampus
|
"Switching station" in the brain that transfers info between STM and LTM
-Damage to the hippocampus (via head injuries, etc.) results in the inability to form new memories |
|
Retrograde Amnesia
|
Inability to remember events that occurred after the injury or trauma
|
|
Recitation
|
Summarize/restate info while you are learning; this aids future retrieval efforts
|
|
Elaborative rehearsal
|
Link facts together and look for connections to existing knowledge
|
|
Organization
|
Organize concepts into chunks; create summaries for concepts and chapters
|
|
Spaced practice
|
Incorporate short breaks into your study sessions
|
|
Sensation
|
The process by which stimulation of the sensory receptors creates a sensory impression
-This produces neural impulses that make us aware of conditions inside or outside the body |
|
Perception
|
The organization of sensations into meaningful patterns, which produces one's experience of sensory info
|
|
Sensory analysis
|
The process by which our senses divide sensory info into important elements
|
|
Perceptual features
|
Basic stimulus patterns or elements (e.g., lines, shapes, colors, designs, etc.)
|
|
Sensory coding
|
The conversion (coding) of sensory info into neural messages that the brain can easily interpret
|
|
Sensory localization
|
Activation of different areas of the brain produces different sensory experiences
|
|
Visible spectrum
|
The range of electromagnetic energies to which the eyes respond
|
|
Hue
|
Basic color categories (e.g., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet)
|
|
How vision works
|
Light enters through the pupil (opening in eyeball)
The cornea and the lens focus this light onto the retina (back of the eye) |
|
Cornea
|
Transparent membrane in the front of the eye that bends light inward to focus incoming images
|
|
Lens
|
Projects incoming light rays onto a light-sensitive area in the back of the eye
-Accommodation: The process by which muscles attached to the lens alter the shap of the eye |
|
Retina
|
The light-sensitive layer of cells on which images are projected
-Contains photoreceptors (light-sensitive cells) |
|
Hyperopia (farsightedness)
|
-Occurs wen eye is too short
-Can see distant objects clearly, but nearby objects are blurred |
|
Presbyopia
|
Farsightedness caused by aging
-Lens becomes less flexible and less able to accommodate |
|
Myopia (nearsightedness)
|
-Occurs when eye is too long
-Can see nearby objects clearly, but distant objects are blurred |
|
Astigmatism
|
-Occurs when the cornea or the lens is misshapen(relatively common)
-Eye has more than one focal point -Part of vision is focused while another part is fuzzy |
|
Rods
|
-Generate only black and white sensations(no color)
-Work best in dim light (more sensitive than cones) -100 million |
|
Cones
|
-Responsible for color sensations and fine details
-Work best in bright light -6.5 million |
|
Blind Spot
|
Area of the retina that lacks any visual receptors
|
|
Visual acuity
|
The sharpness of visual perception
-Rods and cones play a large role in this |
|
Fovea
|
A small region of densely packed cones in the center of the retina (no rods)
-This area produces the sharpest images |
|
Peripheral Vision
|
Vision at the edges of the visual field created by areas outside the voea (primarily rods)
-Creates vision 20 degrees from the retina's center -Highly sensitive to movement |
|
Trichromatic theory
|
-Three types of cones for red, green, or blue light
-Other colors are created from combos of these -Black/white vision is produced by rods -Applies to activity w/in the retina of the ey |
|
Opponent-process theor
|
-Vision analyzes colors into "either or" messages
-Three coding systems: red or green, yellow or blue, and black or white -Exciting one color in a pair (e.g., red) prevents the other color (e.g., green) from being stimulated -Afterimages of the opposwite color may occur after the initial stimulus is removed -Applies to activity in the optic pathways and the brain after info leaves the eye |
|
Total color blindess
|
-Inability to perceive color
-Caused by non-functioning or nonexistent cones -Perceive the world in black and white |
|
Color weakness (Partial color blindness)
|
-Inability to perceive certain colors
-e.g., perceive red and green as the same color(yellowish-brown) |
|
What is the Isihara test?
|
commonly used to measure color blindness and color weakness
|
|
Sound waves
|
Rythmic movement of air molecules
|
|
Pitch
|
Higher or lower tone of sound
-Is determined by frequency of sound waves (number of waves per second) |
|
Loudness
|
Intensity of sound
-Is determined by amplitude of sound waves (phsyical height of the sound wave) |
|
Pinna
|
Visible, external part of the ear
-Sound enters the ear and pinna acts as a funnel to concentrate sounds |
|
Tympanice membrane
|
Eardrum
-Sound waves enter the ear canal and collide w/ the tympanic membrane, setting it into motion |
|
Auditory Ossicles
|
Three small bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup)
-When tympanic membrane is activated, it causes these bones to vibrate |
|
Cochlea
|
Snail-shaped organ in the inner ear that contains fluid
-Oval window:Membrane on the cochlea that moves back and forth, creating waves in the fluid |
|
Hair cells
|
Receptor cells in the cochlea that detect waves in the fluid and convert them to neural impulses
|
|
Organ of Corti
|
Center of cochlea that contains hair cells, canal, and membranes
|
|
Frequency theory
|
As pitch rises, tones are converted to nerve impulses of corresponding frequency
|
|
Place theory
|
-Higher and lower tones stimulate specific areas of the cochlea
-Higher tones register most strongly at the base of the cochlea -Lower tones move hair cells near the outer tip of the cochlea |
|
Conductive hearing loss
|
-Caused by poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum to the inner ear
-Can often be overcome w/ use of a hearing aid |
|
Sensorineural hearing loss
|
-Caused by damage to the hair cells or auditory nerve
-Is often the result of exposure to very loud noises -Can sometimes be overcome via a cochlear implant |
|
Olfaction
|
Sense of smell
|
|
Gustation
|
Sense of taste
|
|
Four basic taste sensations
|
Sweet, salty, sour, bitter
-Most sensitive to bitter, then sour, then salty; least sensetive to sweet -Potential 5th taste quality: umami(brothy/savory) |
|
Taste buds
|
Taste receptor organs located primarily on the top side of the tongue, especially around edges
|