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168 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Sensation
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the process of receiving stimulus energies from the environment
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Transduction
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process of transforming physical energy into electrochemical energy
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Perception
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the brain’s process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning
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Bottom-up processing
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processing that begins with sensory receptors registering environmental information and sending it to the brain for analysis and interpretation
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Top-down processing
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processing of perceptual information that starts out with cognitive processing at the higher level of the brain
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Sensory receptors
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specialized cells that direct stimulus information and transmit it to sensory (afferent) nerves and the brain
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Psychophysics
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the field that studies links between the physical properties of stimuli and a person’s experience of them
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Absolute threshold
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the minimum amount of stimulus energy that a person can detect
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Noise
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irrelevant and competing stimuli
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Subliminal perception
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the detection of information below the level of conscious awareness
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Difference threshold
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the smallest difference in stimulation required to discriminate one stimulus from another 50 percent of the time; also called just noticeable difference
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Weber’s law
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the principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different
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Signal detection theory
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the theory about perception that focuses on decision making about stimuli in the presence of uncertainty; detection depends on a variety of factors besides the physical intensity of the stimulus and the sensory abilities of the observer
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Selective attention
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focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others
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Perceptual set
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a predisposition, or readiness, to perceive something in a particular way
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Sensory adaptation
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a change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation
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Retina
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the light-sensitive surface in the back of the eye that records what we see and converts it to neural impulses for processing in the brain
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Rods
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the receptors in the retina that are sensitive to light but are not very useful for color vision
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Cones
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the receptors in the retina that process information about color
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Feature detectors
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neurons in the brain’s visual system that respond to particular features of a stimulus
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Parallel processing
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the simultaneous distribution of information across different neural pathways
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Binding
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the bringing together and integration of what is processed through different pathways or cells
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Trichromatic theory
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theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of receptors (cone cells in the retina) that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping ranges of wavelength
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Opponent-process theory
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theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue
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Figure-ground relationship
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principle by which individuals organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (background or ground)
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Gestalt psychology
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school of psychology emphasizing that people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns
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Closure
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a Gestalt principle that states when individuals see a disconnected or incomplete figure, they fill in the spaces and see it as a complete figure
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Proximity
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a Gestalt principle that states when individuals see objects close to each other, they tend to group them together
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Similarity
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a Gestalt principle that states when objects are similar, individuals tend to group them together
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Depth perception
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the ability to perceive objects three-dimensionally
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Binocular cues
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depth cues that are based on the combination of the images on the left and right eyes and on the way the two eyes work together
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Monocular cues
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depth cues that are available from the image in either eye
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Texture gradient
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the gradients of texture create an impression of depth on a surface
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Apparent movement
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the perception that a stationery object is moving
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Perceptual constancy
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recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though sensory input about them is changing. There are three types of perceptual constancy – size, shape and brightness
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Size constancy
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is the recognition that an object remains the same size even though even though the retinal image of the object changes
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Shape constancy
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is the recognition that an object retains the same shape even though its orientation to us changes
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Brightness constancy
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is the recognition that an object retains the same degree of brightness event though different amounts of light fall on it
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Visual illusion
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a discrepancy between reality and the perceptual representation of it
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Müller-Lyer illusion
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the two horizontal lines are exactly the same length, although (b) is longer than (a)
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Horizontal-vertical illusion
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a vertical line looks longer than a horizontal line even though the two are equal
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Ponzo illusion
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the top line looks much longer than the bottom line, but they are the same length, (remember that objects higher in a picture are perceived as being farther away)
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Devil’s tuning fork
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an example of a two-dimensional representation of an impossible three-dimensional figure
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Moon illusion
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when the moon is on the horizon, it looks much larger that when it is high in the sky, directly above us
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Sclera
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the outer membrane of the eyeball that makes up the white of the eye
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Retina
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layer of cells in the interior of the eye that contains the photoreceptors, the rods and the cones
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Cornea
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the transparent membrane in the front of the eye that protects the eye and bends light to provide focus
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Pupil
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the opening that allows light to enter the eye
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Iris
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the colored muscle that surrounds the pupil and adjusts the amount of light entering into the eye through the pupil. It dilates (opens) or constricts (closes) in response to the intensity (brightness) of the light. It also dilates in response to certain emotions
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Lens
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focuses the image onto the retinal layer on the back surface of the eye. As in a camera, the image projected by the lens onto the retina is reversed
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Fovea
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the region of the retina that is directly in line with the pupil and contains mostly cones, which are involved in color perception and visual acuity (sharpness)
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Optic nerve
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receives inputs from the photoreceptors and sends information to the brain
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Visual pathways
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images of objects in the right visual field are projected to the left half of the retina in each eye, which in turn sends the information first to the thalamus for initial processing and then to the visual cortex, in the left hemisphere in where perception takes place. Likewise, images of objects in the left visual fielder projected to the right half of the retina in each eye, which in turn sends the information to the thalamus and then to the visual cortex in the right hemisphere
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Sound
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amplitude (intensity) = loudness; frequency = pitch; complex sounds = timbre
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Outer ear
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the visible portion of the ear and the auditory canal (ear canal) that funnels sound waves to the eardrum
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Middle ear
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includes the eardrum and three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that transmit the eardrum’s vibrations to a membrane on the cochlea called the oval window
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Inner ear
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includes the snail-shaped tube called the cochlea which translates sound waves into fluid waves, and the semicircular canals, which sense equilibrium
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Place theory
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the theory of hearing that states that each frequency produces vibrations at a particular spot on the basilar membrane
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Frequency theory
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theory stating that perception of a sound’s frequency depends on how often the auditory nerve fires
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Volley principle
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modification of frequency theory stating that a cluster of nerve cells can fire neural impulses in rapid succession, producing a volley of impulses
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Auditory nerve
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nerve that carries neural impulses to the brain’s auditory areas
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Thermoreceptors
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sensory receptors, located under the skin, that respond to changes in temperature at or near the skin and provide input to keep the body’s temperature at 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit
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Pain
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the sensation that warns us that damage to our bodies is occurring
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Gate-control of theory of pain
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theory stating that the spinal column contains a neural gate that can be opened (allowing the perception of pain) or closed (blocking the perception of pain)
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Papillae
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bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds, the receptors for taste. The tip of the tongue is the most sensitive to sweet and salty substances, the sides to sour, and the rear to bitter.
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Olfactory epithelium
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a sheet of receptor cells for smell that lines the roof of the nasal cavity
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Kinesthetic senses
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senses that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation
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Vestibular sense
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senses that provide information about balance and movement
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Semicircular canals
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structure in the inner ear containing the sensory receptors that detect head motion
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Consciousness
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awareness of external events and internal sensations, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one’s experiences; this awareness occurs under a condition of arousal. The association areas and prefrontal lobes are believed to play important roles in consciousness
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Stream of consciousness
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James’ concept of that the mind is a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings
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Controlled processes
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the most alert states of consciousness, in which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal.
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Automated processes
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states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities
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Unconscious thought
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Freud’s concept of a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness
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Biological rhythms
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periodic physiological fluctuations in the body
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Circadian rhythm
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a daily behavioral or physiological cycle, such as the sleep/wake cycle
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Suprachiasmastic nucleus (SCN)
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a small structure in the brain (hypothalamus) that synchronizes its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark based on input from the retina
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REM sleep
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rapid eye movement sleep; stage 5 of sleep, in which dreaming occurs; begins when the reticular formation raises the level of acetylcholine. It lasts about 10 minutes in 1st sleep cycle of the night and up to one hour in the last cycle.
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Cognitive theory of dreaming
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theory proposing that dreaming can be understood by applying the same cognitive concepts that are used in studying the waking mind
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Activation-synthesis theory
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theory stating that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain
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Hypnosis
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an altered state of consciousness or simply a psychological state of altered attention and expectation, in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions
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Social cognitive behavior view of hypothesis
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perspective that views hypnosis as a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes a hypnotized person should behave
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Psychoactive drugs
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substances that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods
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Tolerance
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the need to take increasing amounts of a drug to produce the same effect
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Physical dependence
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the physiological need for a drug, accompanied by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, such as pain and craving, when the drug is discontinued
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Psychological dependence
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the strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and stress reduction
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Addiction
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either a physical or psychological dependence, or both, on a drug
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Depressants
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psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity
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Alcoholism
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a disorder that involves long-term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive, and excessive use of alcoholic beverages and that impairs the drinker’s health and social relationships
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Barbiturates
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depressant drugs that decrease the activity of the central nervous system
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Tranquilizers
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depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation
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Opiates
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Opium and its derivatives; they depress the central nervous system’s activity
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Stimulants
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psychoactive drugs that increase the central nervous system’s activity
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Hallucinogens
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psychoactive drugs that modify a person’s perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real
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Higher level awareness
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controlled processes and selective attention
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Lower level awareness
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automatic processes and daydreaming
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Altered states of consciousness
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produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue, and other factors
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Subconscious awareness
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waking subconscious awareness, sleep and dreams
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No awareness
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unconscious thought
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Learning
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a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
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Behaviorism
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a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing and hoping
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Associative learning
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learning in which a connection, or an association, is made between two events
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Conditioning
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the process by which associative learning occurs
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Observational learning
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learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior; also called imitation or modeling
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Four main processes in observational learning (Bandura)
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attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement
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Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
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learning by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. It is an underlying principle in advertising and involves respondent behavior. The immune system is susceptible to this type of conditioning
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the conditioned response after being associated with the conditioned stimulus
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Conditioned response (CR)
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the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the pairing of a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
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Acquisition (classical conditioning)
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the initial learning of the stimulus-response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becoming the conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response
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Contiguity (classical conditioning)
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connectedness in time and space of the stimuli
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Contingency (classical conditioning)
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predictability of the occurrence of one stimulus from the presence of another
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Generalization (classical conditioning)
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the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
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Discrimination (classical conditioning)
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the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others
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Extinction (classical conditioning)
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the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
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Spontaneous recovery
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the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning
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Counterconditioning
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a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear.
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Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
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also called instrumental conditioning, a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. It involves operant behavior and is better at explaining voluntary behavior.
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Skinner
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he believed that the mechanisms of learning are the same for all species. He studied lower animals extensively in the hope that the basic mechanisms of learning could be more easily understood in organisms simpler than humans.
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Law of effect
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Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
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S-R theory
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Thorndike’s view that the organism’s behavior is due to a connection between a stimulus and a response
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Shaping
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rewarding approximations of a desired behavior
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Reinforcement
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the process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows. It can be continuous (a behavior is reinforced every time) or partial (a behavior is reinforced only a portion of the time)
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Positive reinforcement
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following a behavior with a rewarding stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior
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Negative reinforcement
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following a behavior with the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior
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Primary reinforcement
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the use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying
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Secondary reinforcement
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the use of reinforcers that are learned or conditioned
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Schedules of reinforcement
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timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
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Fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement
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a timetable that reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors
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Variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement
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a timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis
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Fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement
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a timetable that reinforces the first appropriate behavior after a fixed amount of time has elapsed
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Variable-interval schedule of reinforcement
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a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed
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Generalization (operant conditioning)
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the tendency to give the same response to similar stimuli
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Discrimination (operant conditioning)
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the tendency to respond to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
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Extinction (operant conditioning)
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the situation, where, because a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, there is a decreased tendency to perform the behavior
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Punishment
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a consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur
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Positive punishment
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a behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus
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Negative punishment
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a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it – time out is an example of this type of punishment
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Purposiveness
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Tolman’s belief that much of learning is goal-directed, Tolman went beyond stimuli and responses to discuss cognitive mechanisms
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Latent learning (implicit learning)
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unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
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Insight learning
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a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of the problem’s solution, Kohler developed this concept of learning.
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Instinctive drift
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the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
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Preparedness
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the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
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Taste aversion
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the biological predisposition to avoid foods that have caused sickness in the past
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Biological constraints
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restricts what an organism can learn from experience; these constraints include instinctive drift, preparedness, and taste aversion
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Cultural constraints
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culture often determines the content of learning
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Psychological constraints
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what we learn is determined in part by what we believe we can learn
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Entity theory
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holds that ability is fixed and unchanging
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Incremental theory
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holds that ability can change through learning
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Learned helplessness
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the phenomenon of learning through experience that outcomes are not controllable
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Four important variables in stress response (operant conditioning)
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predictability, perceived control, perceptions of improvement, and outlets for frustration
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Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification)
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the application of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
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Three main classes of of sense organs and receptors
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photoreception, mechnoreception and chemoreception
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cutaneous senses
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touch, temperature and pain
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Fast pain pathway
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transmits information about sharp, localized pain, fibers connect directly with the thalamus, then on to the motor and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.
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Slow pain pathway
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unpleasant, nagging pain and the pain ninformation travels through the limbic system, a detour that delays the arrival of information to the cerebral cortex by seconds.
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Addictive drugs
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activate the brain's reward system by increasing dopamine concentration.
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Meditation
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state of quiet reflection that has benefits for a wide range of psychological or physical illnesses.
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Premak principle
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High probability activity can be used to reinforce a low-probability activity. It is a common reinforcer used by teachers
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Beta waves
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High frequency waves that reflect concentration and alertness
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Alpha waves
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lower frequency patterns associated with being relaxed or drowsy
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Stage 1
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light sleep lating up to 10 minutes ; includes theta waves - (low frequency, low amplitude).
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Stage 2
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Deeper sleep characterized by occasional sleep spindles(brief high frequency waves), lasting up to 20 minutes.
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Stage 3
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Progressively more muscle relaxation and emergence of delta waves (slower); lasts up to 40 minutes.
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Stage 4
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deep sleep when sleeper is difficult to rouse; delta waves - large, slow brain waves occur.
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Stage 4
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deep sleep when sleeper is difficult to rouse; delta waves - large, slow brain waves occur.
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Non-rem sleep
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Sleep stages 1 - 4
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