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37 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
social cognition
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- automatic thoughts about the world
- guided by schemas built from past experience/ shaped by culture - schemas shape our social expectations - schemas can be revised |
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social schemas
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- organized structures of knowledgeof the social world bult from experience
-- contain causal relations -- act as a cognitive filter -- theory about how the social world operates -- increase ability to process information and make decisions - can be flexible or rigid, but always self-sustaining (the way we think about a situation shapes our actions which shape the situation) |
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belief perseverance. how to reduce the perseverance effect?
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- beliefs often persist despite discrediting evidence
- discredit by explaining the opposite (why alternative possibilities might be true) |
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automatic processing: explicit/controlled processing; implicit/automatic processing. Power and limits of intuition
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- explicit- reflective, deliberate, conscious
- implicit- impulsive, effortless, without awareness |
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power and limits of intuition: effectiveness and errors of automatic processing
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- can be more effective than rational decision making on matters of PREFERENCE
- errors in matters of rational judgement |
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priming
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- process by which recent exposure to certain stimuli or events increases the accessibility of certain memories, categories, or schemas
-- awakening of associations, can occur subliminally, can be provoked by words/images/smells/ emotions, spontaneous trait transference |
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higgins and colleagues- adventurousness v. recklessness schemas
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- primed with positive and negative words unrelated to story actions
- read a neutral story with actions - experimental group (primed with adventurous and recklessness)- evaluation of characters behavior varied with schema activated - control group (primed for nothing)- no effect on evaluation |
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vicary's hoax importance. Karremans, Stroebe, Claus replication
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- VH= did not pass subliminal messages; trickery of an advertising mab
- KSC= subliminal priming only works when people are already motivated (ex. thirsty and primed to choose lipton iced tea) |
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heuristics
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- time saving mental shortcuts that reduce complex judgements
-- allow us to stretch our cognitive resources- requires little thought |
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representative heuristic: prototype
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- assumption that the more similar an individual is to the typical members of a group, the more likely that person is to belong to that group
- prototype: a mental model that stands for or sumbolizes the category ex) typical bird v. penguin |
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representative heuristic: social categorization, intuitive judgment
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- social categorization- formation of categories bout people based upon their common attributes
- judge someone intuitively/automatically by comparing them to their prototype of a category |
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base rates; base rates fallacy
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- the frequency with which some event or pattern occurs in the general population
- the tendency to ignore or underuse useful base rate information and overuse personal descriptors of the individual being judged * frequency in the population is often a better guide than intuitive personal guidelines |
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availability heuristic
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- the easier it is to think of information or bring examples of an event to mind, the more important or likely it is
- focus is not content of memory, but ease with which the contents come to mind. - we are quick to infer general truths from vivid instances |
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conditions most likely to lead to the use of heuristics
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- no time for systematic analysis
- overloaded (cognitively) with information - issues in question not very important - little other knowledge to use in decision - priming (something calls the heuristic to mind) - positive mood, no need for effortful thinking |
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negativity bias
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- when information is mixed (positive and negative) we tend to put more emphasis on the NEGATIVE
-- evolutionarily adaptive (cautious people survived) -- reduced or eliminated when positive information is predominant |
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optimistic bias
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- predisposition to expect things to turn out well overall
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overconfidence- task overconfidence, planning fallacy
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- tendency to overestimate the accuracy of ones beliefs and judgments of others and social events
- TO= incompetence feeds overconfidence - PF= overestimating time and underestimating demands -- focus on future instead of informed by past -- past failures attributed to contingent factors |
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confirmation bias
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- we seek information that CONFIRMS our beliefs
- we avoid information that DISCONFIRMS our beliefs - we recall being "almost" right |
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affective forecasting- impact bias, psychological immune system
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- AF- overestimate our ability to predict our feelings
- impact bias- predicting intensity and duration of effects of both positive and negative events in social world (*feelings do not last as long as assumed) - PIS- minimization of resilience following negative social events (*we bound back much more quickly/ easily then we assume, forgetting that conditions change and we adapt) |
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constructing memories: memory illusions, memory reconstruction
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- MI= false but convincing memories
- Memory is reconstructive- we construct memories by extracting the gist to make things easier to remember and combining information we have with current feelings and expectations |
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memory biases: misinformation effect
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- we incorporate MISINFORMATION we RECEIVE about events we've experienced
ex) photoshopped pictures |
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memory biases: reconstructing our past attitudes, reconstructing our past behavior
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- attitude: we change our attitudes but recall ALWAYS having HAD CURRENT ONES
-- rosy retrospection of positive experiences - behavior: recalling more FAVORABLE behavior (hindsight bias) |
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counterfactual thinking- occurs most often when?
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- mentally stimulating and reconfiguring past events by imaging ALTERNATIVE versions or outcomes
- most often follows negative/ unexpected event -- focus on how the event may have been prevented in attempt to make us feel better |
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illusory thinking- illusory correlation, illusion of control
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- IT- search for ORDER in RANDOM events
- ICorrelation- associating random events, confirming beliefs about CONNECTIONS that DONT EXIST ex. superstitions - IControl- belief that chance events are subject to our influence ex. gambling |
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magical thinking
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- assumptions that are compelling yet irrational
-- thinking thoughts can influence physical events ex. thinking about not wanting to be called on and not being called on - thinking that things that resemble each other are the same ex. chocolate insects |
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social cognition and affect- good moods make us? mood influences?
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- moods and feelings influence thinking
- good moods make us --PERCEIVE situations and people more POSITIVELY -- more likely to believe a statement we read - moods influence what we REMEMBER about people and situations -- mood congruence effects on storage- good moods make us less likely to store any negative aspects of a situation and vice versa -- mood dependent memory affects retrieval |
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mood and judgment
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- moods affect self-judgment
- ex) study- those put in a good mood before watching a vide of themselves saw more positive aspects of themselves; those put in a bad mood saw negative aspects of themselves in the same video |
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implicit personality theories
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- individuals behavior actually varies widely across situations (we often assume beahvior to be stable)
- we develop naive belief systesms about :types" of individuals traits and behaviors they share - schemas- shaped by personal experience and cultural beliefs, passed from generation to generation - commonly used in making social judgements - evaluative consistency- tendency to view others in a way that is internally consistent (we distort or explain away contraidctions rather than change our implicit theory) |
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influences on inference of traits: discounting, social desirability
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- discounting- whenever there are several possible causal explanations for a particular event, people tend to be much less likely to attribute the effect to any particular cause
- social desirability- people are more likely to make DISPOSITIONAL attributions about behavior that are low in social desirability |
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influences on inference of traits: choice, noncommon effects
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- choice- actions FREELY CHOSEN are considered to be more indicative of PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS than those that are coerced
- noncommon effects- outcomes that could not be produced by any other actions ex) see a person everyday because of similar schedule, but when they are outside of our house the only explanation is they are stalking you |
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why are attributions important?
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- the attribution we make determines what our reaction is
-- ex) negative behavior could either be attributed to dispositional influences (and therefore an unfavorable reaction) or situational attributions (and therefore a sympathetic reaction) |
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fundamental attribution error
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- the tendency to overestimate dispositional causes (stable, internal attribution) and underestimate situational causes ( unstable, external attribution) of other peoples behavior
- we tend to attributive other's behavior to their personality, and our behavior to the situation |
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why do we make the fundamental attribution error?
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- dispositional attributions give us greater confidence in predicting future behavior
-- desire for predictability makes us more susceptible |
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actor-observer effect
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- we attribute our own behavior to external causes and other's behavior to internal factors because of a DIFFERENCE IN PERSPECTIVE
- when we observe others, the person is the center of attention; when we act, the environment is the center of our attention |
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influences on the fundamental attribution error: time, self-awareness, culture
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- time: attributions shift from internal to external
- self-awareness: when our attention focuses on ourselves, we're more likely to attribute our own actions to internal causes -- externally provoked self-awareness, private self-consciousness - culture: members of collectivist cultures are more apt to attribute behavior to the situation (they are taught to be more intuned with the situation) |
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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- others' EXPECTATIONS about a person, group, or situation lead to fulfillment of those expectations
-- a false definition of a situation evokes a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true |
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expectation effects
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- ex) self-fulfilling prophecy
- affect performance- high expectations especially likely to improve performance of low achievers - conveyed non-verbally and are easily detected by observers when the actor believed them to be hidden (vocal tone related to patients outcome) |