Surgical Procedures

The principal reason for abdominoperineal resection (APR) is a rectalcarcinoma situated in the distal (lower) one-third of the rectum. APRsinvolves removal of the anus, the rectum, and part of the sigmoid colon alongwith the lymph nodes in the area.

To remove cancer of the anus or rectum.

Abdominoplasty or "tummy tuck" is a cosmetic surgery procedure used tomake the abdomen more firm. The surgery involves the removal of excessskin and fat from the middle and lower abdomen in order to tighten themuscle and fascia of the abdominal wall. This type of surgery is usuallysought by patients with loose tissues after pregnancy or individuals withsagging skin and tissue after major weight loss. Previous abdominal surgeries may pose additional surgical risks. Risk ofincisional hernia is increased.

Abdominoplasty is done to improve one’s appearance

Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by the removal or expulsion, fromthe uterus, of a fetus or embryo, resulting in or caused by its death. Anabortion can occur spontaneously due to complications during pregnancy orcan be induced, in humans and other species. In the context of humanpregnancies, an abortion induced to preserve the health of the pregnantfemale is termed a therapeutic abortion, while an abortion induced for anyother reason is termed an elective abortion. The term ‘abortion’ mostcommonly refers to the induced abortion of a human pregnancy, whilespontaneous abortions are usually termed miscarriages.

A personal choice to terminate a pregnancy. (If this is thecase – the patient must receive professional psychologicalcounselling prior to committing to this decision). · To remove the remaining uterine contents after anincomplete miscarriage (therapeutic abortion).

This procedure permits the opening and draining of an abscess. Definition: An abscess (Latin: abscessus) is a collection of pus (deadneutrophils) that has accumulated in a cavity formed by the tissue in whichthe pus resides. This is an infectious process (usually caused by bacteria orparasites) or other foreign materials (e.g., splinters, bullet wounds, orinjecting needles). It is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent thespread of infectious materials to other parts of the body. Abscesses can occur anywhere in the body. Common locations: The femalebreast (while breastfeeding); rectum; labia (female genitalia); face; tonsilarea; lung; under the tongue; and armpit.

Abscess drainage is done to treat infection. Occasionally, anabscess will open and drain on its own; however, the surgicalprocedure would still be required to make sure that the drainageis complete.

Definition: Adhesions are fibrous bands that form between tissues andorgans, often as a result of injury during surgery. They may be thought of asinternal scar tissue. Most often adhesions are found in the abdominal or pelvic areas (involvingthe organs in these cavities). Adhesions can be a result of: Surgery; PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease);Endometriosis; An organ that has ruptured – causing scarring and infection;Genetics-Some people are prone to scarring and adhesions; Congenital-Defects present at birth. Separation of Adhesion surgery is required to release the tissue that isclinging together and causing pain and possible immobility.

Removal of adhesions may help release the pull on abdominalorgans caused by the adhesion. (Some organs can be twistedby the adhesions). Intestinal obstruction may be caused by adhesions. This can becorrected.

Adrenalectomy is the removal of the adrenal glands. (The adrenal glands siton top of each kidney).

For Cushing’s syndrome (a disorder / disease of the adrenalglands caused by high levels of cortisol in the blood) To remove any adrenal gland tumours

Amniocentesis is a medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis ofchromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections. A small amount of amnioticfluid, which contains fetal tissues, is extracted from the amnion or amnioticsac surrounding a developing fetus, and the fetal DNA is examined forgenetic abnormalities.

Early in pregnancy, used for diagnosis of chromosomal problems:· Anencephaly- (a cephalic disorder that results from aneural tube defect that occurs when the cephalic (head) end of theneural tube fails to close, usually between the 23rd and 26th day ofpregnancy, resulting in the absence of a major portion of the brain,skull, and scalp). · Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) (also called ‘Down’sSyndrome) – the most common abnormality · Trisomy 13 (also known as Patau syndrome) · Trisomy 18 (The second most common abnormality alsoknown as Trisomy E or Edwards syndrome) · Fragile X (or Martin-Bell syndrome) · Rare, inherited metabolic disorders · Spina Bifida Later in pregnancy, it also can be used to find problems such as:· Infection · Rh incompatibility · prediction of lung maturity · decompression of polyhydramnios (excessive amniotic fluid) The risk of doing an amniocentesis increases if the patient has hadprevious infection in the pelvic organs or has previously hadabdominal surgery.

Amputation is the removal of a limb or appendage such as an arm, leg,hand, foot, finger or toe.

If circulation to a body part is severely limited and is irreversible,an amputation is strongly suggested. Causes of interruptedblood flow may be...Injury to blood vessels AtherosclerosisBlood flow issues as a complication of diabetes mellitusRaynaud’s phenomenaInfection with resulting gangreneSevere frostbiteMajor irreparable trauma or injury

An anal fissure is a crack or tear(s) in the membrane that is the lining of theanus or anal canal. This procedure allows for removal of the anal fissure andfor incision of the muscular anal sphincter – to allow for the fissure repair.

To relieve the pain related to an anal fissure.

What? - An anal fistula, or fistula-in-ano, is an abnormal connection betweenthe epithelialized surface of the anal canal and (usually) the perianal skin.Anal fistulae originate from the anal glands, which are located between thetwo layers of the anal sphincters and which drain into the anal canal. If theoutlet of these glands becomes blocked, an abscess can form, which caneventually point to the skin surface. The tract formed by this process is thefistula.

Anal fistula repair is done if a patient has repeated abscesses inthe anal and rectal areas or if the patient is experiencing chronicdrainage from the fistula.

An aneurysm or aneurism (from Ancient Greek - "to dilate"), is a localized,blood-filled dilation (balloon-like bulge) of a blood vessel caused by diseaseor weakening of the vessel wall.

Aneurysms most commonly occur in arteries at the base of thebrain (the circle of Willis) and in the aorta (the main arterycoming out of the heart, a so-called aortic aneurysm). As thesize of an aneurysm increases, there is an increased risk ofrupture, which can result in severe hemorrhage, othercomplications or even death.

Surgery is performed to correct this weakness, which may havebeen caused by injury or disease. Often the aneurysm presseson other body structures.

Angioplasty is the technique of mechanically widening a narrowed orobstructed blood vessel; typically as a result of atherosclerosis. An emptyand collapsed balloon on a guide wire, known as a balloon catheter, ispassed into the narrowed locations and then inflated to a fixed size. Theballoon crushes the fatty deposits, opening up the blood vessel to improvedflow, and the balloon is then collapsed and withdrawn.

These narrowed segments are due to the build-up of cholesterol-laden plaques that form due to atherosclerosis. These must beremoved to unblock a blocked or partial blocked coronaryartery.

Atherosclerotic occlusive disease involving the abdominal aorta and/or bothof the iliac arteries requires surgery to bypass the occlusion. This surgeryinvolves the placement of artificial tubes (called a graft); thus going aroundthe obstruction.

Normal blood circulation will be restored to the legs.

An appendectomy is the surgical removal of the vermiform appendix.Theappendix is an outgrowth of tissue from the cecum (the first part of the largeintestine).

The appendix may become infected and then needs to beremoved.The patient may experience abdominal pain, loss of appetite,tenderness in the right lower quadrant, low-grade fever, and anelevated white blood cell count if the appendix is infected. It isusually an emergency to prevent the inflamed or infectedappendix from rupturing.

Hip replacement (total hip replacement), is a surgical procedure in which thehip joint is replaced by a prosthetic implant. Replacing the hip joint consistsof replacing both the acetabulum and the femoral head.

Such joint replacement orthopedic surgery generally isconducted to relieve arthritis pain or fix severe physical jointdamage as part of hip fracture treatment.

Knee replacement or knee arthroplasty is a procedure to replace the weight-bearing surfaces of the knee joint. This will relieve the pain and disability ofosteoarthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis or psoriatic arthritis are two other reasons thereplacement may be considered. Knee replacement surgery can be performed as a partial or a total kneereplacement. In general, the surgery consists of replacing the diseased ordamaged joint surfaces of the knee with metal and plastic componentsshaped to allow continued motion of the knee.

Patients who have chronic pain or disability that impairs thequality of life due to a diseased or injured knee require thisintervention. Debilitating pain from osteoarthritis is much morecommon in the elderly.

Shoulder replacement is a surgical procedure in which all or part of theshoulder joint is replaced by a prosthetic implant. It is done to restoremovement to the injured / diseased area. This is a procedure to re-establish a movable joint to an injured or diseasedshoulder. The shoulder joint, muscles, ligaments, bones, cartilage, andbursa of the shoulder joint are the body parts involved in this surgicalprocedure.

Shoulder joint replacement surgery is done to... · relieve arthritis pain · fix severe physical joint damage (Some issues treated are osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis,trauma, congenital defects, or rotator cuff arthropathy)

Arthroscopy (also called arthroscopic surgery) is a minimally invasive surgicalprocedure in which an examination and sometimes treatment of damage ofthe interior of a joint is performed using an arthroscope, a type of endoscopethat is inserted into the joint through a small incision.

Arthroscopic procedures can be performed either to evaluate orto treat many orthopedic conditions including torn floatingcartilage, torn surface cartilage, ACL reconstruction, andtrimming damaged cartilage.

Baker’s Cyst removal is the surgical removal of the cyst – which consists offluid behind the knee – causing pain and difficultly bending the knee. It isnormally benign. Baker cyst (also known as a popliteal cyst) is a benign swelling of the semi-membranous bursa found behind the knee joint.

If the cyst does not go away by treating any underlying disease,the cyst can be removed prior to becoming very painful, large,and disfiguring. Normally the cyst will heal on its own in children(it will only be removed in children if it is pressing on a nerve orblood supply).

Bariatric surgery, or weight loss surgery, is a type of procedure performed onpeople who are dangerously obese, for the purpose of losing weight. Thisweight loss is usually achieved by reducing the size of the stomach with animplanted medical device (gastric banding) or through removal of a portion ofthe stomach (sleeve gastrectomy or biliopancreatic diversion with duodenalswitch) or by resecting and re-routing the small intestines to a small stomachpouch (gastric bypass surgery).

For patients who are morbidly obese with the purpose of losingweight.

The Bartholin's glands (also called Bartholin glands or greater vestibularglands) are two glands located slightly below and to the left and right of theopening of the vagina. They secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina. Bartholin’s Gland Cyst Removal is the removal or repair of a cyst in theseglands.

Treatment will help prevent recurring infection after the cyst orabscess is drained.

Blepharoplasty is surgical modification of the eyelid. Excess tissue such asskin and fat are removed or repositioned, and surrounding muscles andtendons may be reinforced. It can be both a functional and cosmetic surgery.(Often, it is done in conjunction with a rhytidectomy (face lift)).

Cosmetic reasons: For improvement of appearance and betterfunction of the eyelids

Bone grafting is a surgical procedure that replaces missing bone withmaterial from the patient's own body, an artificial, synthetic, or naturalsubstitute.

Bone grafting is used to repair bone fractures that are extremelycomplex, pose a significant health risk to the patient, or fail toheal properly. The most common use of bone grafting is in the application ofdental implants.

Bone marrow is removed from part of the hip bone (the ilium) from oneperson (the donor) and given to another person (the recipient) through a vein(the blood stream). Definition of Transplant - An organ transplant is the moving of an organ fromone body to another (or from a donor site on the patient's own body- in somecases) for the purpose of replacing the recipient's damaged or absent organ.

A bone marrow transplant is sometimes needed if the recipient hasa poor immune system that may have been weakened due to:-Aplastic anemia (a condition where bone marrow does notproduce sufficient new cells to replenish blood cells). -Leukemia (A cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized byan abnormal increase of blood cells, usually leukocytes (whiteblood cells)- MultipleMyeloma(acancerofthewhitebloodcells) -Sickle-cell disease (a genetic blood disorder characterized by redblood cells that assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape. Sicklingdecreases the cells' flexibility and results in the risk of variouscomplications). -Myelodysplastic syndrome (a diverse collection of hematologicalconditions).-Neuroblastoma (The most common extracranial solid cancer inchildhood and infancy) - Lymphoma (a cancer that begins in the lymphatic cells of theimmune system and presents as a solid tumour).-Ewing's Sarcoma (A malignant round-cell tumour. It is a raredisease in which cancer cells are found in the bone or in softtissue). -Desmoplastic small round cell tumour (A soft tissue sarcoma. It isan aggressive and rare tumour)-Hodgkin's disease (A type of cancer originating from white bloodcells called lymphocytes. A type of lymphoma.) -A bone marrow transplant can be used as a method to treat HIV

Breast Abscess Drainage is the draining of an abscess in the female breast.Abscesses are non-cancerous pockets of infection within the breast. Theycan be quite painful and cause the skin over the breast to turn red or feel hotor solid. Abscesses of the breast are most common in women who arebreast-feeding.

Breast abscess drainage is done to prevent the spread ofinfection and for the relief of pain.

Definition of Augment: To increase or amplify A breast implant is a prosthesis used to alter the size and shape of awoman's breasts (known as breast augmentation, breast enlargement,mammoplasty enlargement, augmentation mammoplasty or the commonslang term ‘boob job’) for cosmetic reasons, to reconstruct the breast (e.g.after a mastectomy or to correct congenital chest wall deformities), or as anaspect of male-to-female sex reassignment surgery.

· Cosmetic reasons: To enlarge small breasts (in womenwho have less breast tissue than they would like)· To correct asymmetrical breasts (one breast larger thanthe other) · Used after mastectomy to restore normal appearance ofthe breast (as in breast reconstruction)· Gender re-assignment

A biopsy is a medical test involving the removal of cells or tissues forexamination. It is the medical removal of tissue from a living subject todetermine the presence or extent of a disease. The tissue is generallyexamined under a microscope by a pathologist, and can also be analyzedchemically. When an entire lump or suspicious area is removed, theprocedure is called an excisional biopsy. When only a sample of tissue isremoved with preservation of the histological architecture of the tissue’s cells,the procedure is called an incisional biopsy or core biopsy. When asample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle in such a way that cells areremoved without preserving the histological architecture of the tissue cells,the procedure is called a needle aspiration biopsy. A breast lump or cyst is removed from one of the breasts. This is normallydone in females. (Can be found in males – but rarely).

This procedure is done if there is suspected breast cancer. Thetissue removed by the biopsy will be examined microscopicallyin a laboratory to make a definite diagnosis.

Breast Biopsy by Needle Aspiration is the removal of tissue or fluid from abreast (female). Needle aspiration biopsy (NAB), also known as fine needle aspirationcytology (FNAC), fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) and fine needleaspiration (FNA), is a diagnostic procedure sometimes used to investigatesuperficial (just under the skin) lumps or masses. In this technique, a thin,hollow needle is inserted into the mass to extract cells that, after beingstained, will be examined under a microscope. Fine needle aspirationbiopsies are very safe, minor surgical procedures. Often, a major surgical(excisional or open) biopsy can be avoided by performing a needle aspirationbiopsy instead. A needle aspiration biopsy is safer and less traumatic than an open surgicalbiopsy, and significant complications are usually rare, depending on the bodysite. Common complications include bruising and soreness. There is a risk,because the biopsy is very small (only a few cells), that the problematic cellsmay be missed, resulting in a false negative result. There is also a risk thatthe cells taken will not enable a definitive diagnosis.

This procedure is used to diagnose the pathology (benign ormalignant) of a lump or abnormal area of the breast.

Breast reconstruction is the rebuilding of a breast, usually in women. Itinvolves using autologous tissue (the transplantation of organs, tissues oreven proteins from one part of the body to another in the same individual) orprosthetic material to construct a natural-looking breast. Often this includesthe reformation of a natural-looking areola and nipple. This procedureinvolves the use of implants or relocated flaps of the patient's own tissue.

This procedure may be done during a mastectomy (the removalof a breast due to cancer) or at a time after a mastectomy hasbeen done – for cosmetic and psychological reasons.

Breast reduction or reduction mammoplasty is a common surgical procedurethat involves the reduction in the size of breasts by excising fat, skin, breastimplants and glandular tissue. It may also involve a procedure to counteractdrooping of the breasts. As with breast augmentation, this procedure istypically performed on women, but may also be performed on men afflictedby gynecomastia (the development of abnormally large mammary glandsthat show as large breasts).

Cosmetic reasons: To reduce the size of large breasts toimprove appearanceSometimes breast reduction is done to make one breast matchthe other breast that may have been changed surgically. Health reasons: The weight of extremely large breasts cancause pain in the neck, shoulders, and back. Bra straps can‘dig’ into the shoulders causing pain.

Bronchoscopy is a technique of visualizing the inside of the airways fordiagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Tissue and secretions will be removed.

A bronchoscopy is done...- If cancer is suspected- If a foreign body has been accidentally inhaled.- If there is bleeding in the bronchial tree-To diagnose diseases of the lungs (possibly emphysema orbronchiectasis)

A bunion is a structural anomaly of the bones and the joint between the footand big toe, and it may be painful. A bunion is an enlargement of bone ortissue around the joint at the base of the big toe (metatarsophalangeal joint).The big toe may turn in toward the second toe (angulation), and the tissuessurrounding the joint may be swollen and tender.

The procedure is done to relieve pain and correct deformity.

A Caesarean section (US: Cesarean section), also C-section, Caesariansection, Cesarian section, Caesar- is a surgical procedure in which one ormore incisions are made through a mother's abdomen (laparotomy) anduterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies, or, rarely, to remove adead fetus. A late-term abortion using Caesarean section procedures istermed a hysterotomy abortion and is very rarely performed.

A Caesarean section is usually performed when a vaginaldelivery would put the baby's or mother's life or health at risk;although, in recent times it has been performed upon request forchildbirths that could otherwise have been natural (vaginally). Some reasons:- Large fetal head-Failure to progress through labour at a desirable rate- Poor uterine contractions-Placenta previa-Active herpes infection-Previous C-section- Breech (bottom first) presentation of the fetus

Cardiac catheterization (heart cath) is the insertion of a catheter into achamber or vessel of the heart. This is done for both investigational andinterventional purposes. Coronary catheterization is a subset of thistechnique, involving the catheterization of the coronary arteries. Angiocardiography or arteriocardiography is a medical imaging techniqueused to visualize the inside, or lumen, of blood vessels and organs of thebody, with particular interest in the arteries, veins and the heart chambers.This is traditionally done by injecting a radio-opaque contrast agent into theblood vessel and imaging using X-ray based techniques such as fluoroscopy.

Congenital heart defects, valves and heart disease, and causesof chest pain can be determined. Areas of artery narrowing or obstruction can be seen and theheart’s ability to pump blood can be evaluated.

Endarterectomy is the removal of material on the inside (endo-) of an artery.Atherosclerosis causes plaque to form in the carotid arteries, usually at thefork where the common carotid artery divides into the internal and externalcarotid artery. The plaque can build up in the inner surface of the artery(lumen), and narrow or constrict the artery. Pieces of the plaque, calledemboli, can break off and travel up the internal carotid artery to the brain,where it blocks circulation, and can cause death of the brain tissue.

This procedure is used to prevent stroke, by correcting stenosis(narrowing) in the common carotid artery.

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), or median neuropathy at the wrist, is amedical condition in which the median nerve is compressed at the wrist,leading to paresthesias, numbness and muscle weakness in the hand. In this procedure the transverse carpal ligament (fibrous tissue extendingacross the wrist) is cut.

This will relieve pain or numbness that has been caused bycompression of the nerve in the wrist. It is recommended whenthere is constant, not just intermittent, numbness, muscleweakness, or atrophy, and when night-splinting no longercontrols intermittent symptoms.

A cataract: The natural lens of the eye has become opaque. Metabolic changes of the crystalline lens fibers over time lead to thedevelopment of the cataract and loss of transparency, causing impairment orloss of vision. During cataract surgery, a patient's cloudy natural lens isremoved and replaced with a synthetic lens.

To restore the lens's transparency and restore normal (oralmost normal) sight.

The cervix is the lower third of the uterus. Cervical biopsy is the removal oftissue from the cervix to allow for pathology examination. The cervix isreached through the vagina.

The removal of tissue by biopsy allows for microscopicexamination in a laboratory to determine and investigatediseases (possibly cancer) of the cervix.

Cryosurgery of the cervix is the destruction, by freezing, of infected,damaged, or abnormal cells of the cervix. (The cervix is the lower portion ofthe uterus). A cryosurgery probe is inserted through the vagina to access the cervix andis used to freeze cells with liquid nitrogen. Cryosurgery (also called cryotherapy) is the application of extreme cold todestroy abnormal or diseased tissue. The term comes from the Greek wordscryo ("icy cold") and surgery meaning "hand work" or "handiwork".Cryosurgery has been historically used to treat a number of diseases anddisorders, especially a variety of benign and malignant skin conditions.

Treatment is done to...- Remove abnormal cells from the cervical area- Improve or rid the cervix of infection or inflammation (chroniccervicitis).

Cervical electrocauterization is the burning (removal) of abnormal tissue fromthe cervix. Electric current destroys tissue (normal or abnormal); therefore,the surgeon must exercise caution. Cervical dysplasia (also known as Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)), isthe potentially premalignant transformation and abnormal growth (dysplasia)of squamous cells on the surface of the cervix. The cervix is the lower third ofthe uterus.

Electrocauterization of the cervix is done to treat...- Abnormal cells of the cervix (the presence would have beendetermined during the Pap Smear testing),-Infection / Inflammation of the cervix.

A cyst in the eyelid caused by inflammation of a blocked meibomian gland,usually on the upper eyelid. Chalazia differ from styes (hordeola) in that theyare subacute, nontender, and usually painless nodules. The chalazion maybecome acutely inflamed but, unlike a stye, usually point inside the lid ratherthan on the lid margin. A chalazion or meibomian cyst could take months tofully heal with treatment and could take years to heal without treatment.

A Chalazion is normally removed to relieve pressure on theeyeball. It is not considered to be infectious or cancerous. Surgery is only considered after less invasive treatments havebeen attempted and have failed. A home remedy is to have a hot, wet flannel, and rub gently,until the heat has reached the cyst. This helps to reduce thesize, and eventually it will eradicate the cyst. It is rare that achalazion will recur. Topical antibiotic eye drops or ointment are sometimes used forthe initial acute infection, but are otherwise of little value intreating a chalazion. Smaller lesions may be injected with acorticosteroid or larger ones may be surgically treated. Chalaziawill often disappear without further treatment within a fewmonths and virtually all will resorb within two years.

Cholecystectomy is the surgical removal of the gallbladder. It is the mostcommon method for treating symptomatic gallstones. Surgical optionsinclude the standard procedure, called laparoscopic cholecystectomy, andan older more invasive procedure, called open cholecystectomy. A laparoscope (a fiber-optic instrument) is used for diagnostic imaging andsurgical procedures. In this case it is used to remove the gallbladder.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is done to... · Treat gallstones · Treat acute inflammation of the gallbladder · Treat malignant or benign gallbladder tumours.

A traditional open cholecystectomy is a major abdominal surgery in which thesurgeon removes the gallbladder.

Open Cholecystectomy is done to treat... · Gallstones · Chronic gallbladder infection · Suspected gallbladder tumours · Sudden, severe infection of the gallbladder that is notresolved quickly with treatment such as antibiotics

Circumcision – the removal of the foreskin of the penis – can be done at birthor shortly after birth. It can also be done on adult males.

· To correct phimosis (the inability to retract the foreskincompletely) · To treat balanitis (infection of the penis) · To remove penile cancer · To treat urinary tract infections · In infants – parent choice (either religious or otherwise)

PALATE REPAIR Cleft lip (cheiloschisis ) and cleft palate (palatoschisis ), which can also occurtogether as cleft lip and palate, are variations of a type of clefting congenitaldeformity caused by abnormal facial development during gestation. A cleft isa fissure or opening - a gap. It is the non-fusion of the body's naturalstructures that form before birth. Approximately 1 in 700 children born have acleft lip and / or a cleft palate. It has sometimes colloquially been equatedwith the phrase ‘harelip’, but this is considered deeply offensive, and is usedincorrectly, as that term refers to the pulling of the lip towards the nose. The risk for surgery may be increased if there are other congenitalabnormalities or poor nutrition (a result of problems with nursing or feedingprior to the repair).

If the cleft lip / palate are not repaired – there can be nursing orfeeding issues that will compromise normal growth anddevelopment. Cosmetic reasons: Repair of the cleft lip will allow for normalfunctioning of the lips and will allow the face / mouth to look asnormal as possible.

A cochlear implant (CI) is a surgically implanted electronic device thatprovides a sense of sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severelyhard of hearing. The cochlear implant is often referred to as a ‘bionic’ ear.

Severe deafness can be treated.Trauma or toxic effects of drugs or infection may have damagedthe cochlea. The auditory nerve that carries the sound signals must be intact(but until the cochlear implant – it may not be receiving stimulus.The implant will provide the signals which are then taken up bythe auditory nerve – improving hearing (but not restoring normalhearing).

Colonoscopy is the endoscopic examination of the colon to the distal part ofthe small bowel with a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube (called acolonoscope) passed through the anus. It may provide a visual diagnosis(e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal ofsuspected lesions. Colonoscopy is similar to but not the same as sigmoidoscopy, the differencebeing related to which parts of the colon each can examine. Whilecolonoscopy allows an examination of the entire colon (measuring four to fivefeet in length), sigmoidoscopy allows doctors to view only the final two feet ofthe colon. A sigmoidoscopy is often used as a screening procedure for a fullcolonoscopy.

Conditions that call for colonoscopies include gastrointestinalhemorrhage, unexplained changes in bowel habit and suspicionof malignancy. Colonoscopies are often used to diagnose coloncancer, but are also frequently used to diagnose inflammatorybowel disease.

A colostomy is a reversible surgical procedure in which a stoma is formed bydrawing the healthy end of the large intestine or colon through an incision inthe anterior abdominal wall and suturing it into place.

This opening, in conjunction with the attached stoma appliance,provides an alternative channel for feces to leave the body. Thisnew opening may be temporary to allow healing in a portion ofthe colon or it may be permanent.

A partial or complete blockage in the coronary artery system is replaced witha section of the patient’s leg vein. This will restore the blood supply to theheart. Coronary artery bypass surgery can also be called coronary artery bypassgraft (CABG) surgery, and colloquially heart bypass or bypass surgery.

This surgical procedure is performed to relieve angina andreduce the risk of death from coronary artery disease. Blood supply will be restored to the heart muscle after a heartattack.

A craniotomy is a surgical operation in which a bone flap is removed from theskull, to access the brain.

Craniotomies are often a critical operation performed onpatients suffering from brain lesions or traumatic brain injury(TBI), and can also allow doctors to surgically implant deepbrain stimulators for the treatment of Parkinson's disease,epilepsy and cerebellar tremor. The procedure is also widelyused in neuroscience for extracellular recording, brain imaging,and for neurological manipulations such as electrical stimulationand chemical titration.

Cryosurgery (also called cryotherapy) is the application of extreme cold todestroy abnormal or diseased tissue. Abnormal tissue may be a lesion on the skin, cervix, or even hemorrhoids.

Warts, moles, skin tags, solar keratoses (skin growths causedby the sun), Morton's neuroma and small skin cancers arecandidates for cryosurgical treatment. Several internal disordersare also treated with cryosurgery, including liver cancer, prostatecancer, lung cancer, oral cancers, cervical disorders and, morecommonly in the past, hemorrhoids. Soft tissue conditions suchas plantar fasciitis and fibroma can be treated with cryosurgery.

Culdocentesis refers to the extraction of fluid from the rectouterine pouchposterior to the vagina (the ‘cul-de-sac’) through a needle. The fluid obtainedfrom this area will be microscopically examined in a laboratory.

It can be one diagnostic technique used in identifying...Pelvic inflammatory disease (if purulent fluid is extracted).Ruptured ectopic pregnancyOvarian cyst or cancer

Cystectomy is a medical term for surgical removal of all or part of the urinarybladder.

For Cancer of the bladder.

Endoscopy of the urinary bladder, via the urethra, is called cystoscopy. Theinstrument used to view the urethra, ureters, and bladder is called acystoscope. The cystoscope has lenses like a telescope or microscope.These lenses let the doctor focus on the inner surfaces of the urinary tract. There are two main types of cystoscopy - flexible and rigid - differing in theflexibility of the cystoscope. Flexible cystoscopy is carried out using localanesthesia on both sexes. Typically, lidocaine/xylocaine gel is used as ananesthetic, instilled in the urethra. Rigid cystoscopy can be performed underthe same conditions, but is generally carried out under general anesthesia,particularly in male subjects, due to the pain caused by the probe.

There are many indications that may require cystoscopy.-Frequent urinary tract infections-Blood in the urine (hematuria)-Loss of bladder control (incontinence) or overactive bladder-Unusual cells found in urine sample -Need for a bladder catheter- Painful urination, chronic pelvic pain, or interstitial cystitis-Urinary blockage such as from prostate enlargement, stricture,or narrowing of the urinary tract-Stone in the urinary tract-Unusual growth, polyp, tumour, or cancer

First the cervix is enlarged (dilatation) using instruments called rods. (Hegardilation includes numbers from 3 to 12 rods). Second, the inside wall of theuterus is scraped with an instrument called a curette. (It comes in size small,medium, and large. There is a blunt edge or sharp edge). This allowsremoval of the uterine tissue. Dilatation and Curettage is also called a D&C.

For elective abortion during early pregnancy · To treat abnormal uterine bleeding · To diagnose suspected uterine cancer · Done after an incomplete miscarriage · To treat minor diseases / abnormalities of the uterus

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is a congenital disorder in the heart whereina neonate's ductus arteriosus fails to close after birth. This procedure willclose this ‘shunt’ – to save the child’s life .

It is not known why, but closure of the patent ductus arteriosusdoes not always happen as is expected at birth. The surgeryneeds to be done so that normal growth and development willoccur. If the opening is very large, the corrective surgery will bedone within the first few days of life; otherwise, if it is smaller,surgery may be delayed until the child is 3 or 4 years old- unlessbreathing becomes difficult or the child does not gain weight.

Ectropion is a medical condition in which the lower eyelid turns outwards. The removal of extra cartilage from the edge of the lower eyelid is calledectropion repair.

Cosmetic reasons – to improve appearanceRelief of pain; irritation; inflammation Infection in the membrane that surrounds the eye can bereduced

Electrocauterization is the process of destroying tissue using heat conductionfrom a metal probe heated by electric current (much like arc welding).

The procedure is used to stop bleeding from small vessels(larger vessels would be ligated) or for cutting through softtissue. Electrocautery is a procedure that uses a light electricalcurrent to burn moles, skin tags, and warts off the skin.

The endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus. Endometrial biopsy allowsfor removal of a piece of this endometrial tissue to send for laboratorymicroscopic analysis.

Microscopic examination in a laboratory will help in thediagnosis. Reasons for endometrial biopsy:- To investigate abnormal uterine bleeding (between menstrualperiods or after menopause)- To investigate why a patient cannot become pregnant (fertilitytesting)

Entropion is a medical condition in which the eyelid (usually the lower lid)folds inward. It is very uncomfortable, as the eyelashes rub against thecornea constantly. Entropion repair is the removal of the extra tissue, skin, and cartilage at theedge of the eyelid.

Relief of pain; irritation; inflammation.Cosmetic reasons: Improvement of appearance

An episiotomy is a surgical incision through the perineum made to enlargethe vagina and assist childbirth. The incision can be midline or at an anglefrom the posterior end (the end near the anus) of the vulva. It is performedunder local anaesthetic and is sutured closed after delivery. It is one of themost common medical procedures performed on women, and although itsroutine use in childbirth has steadily declined in recent decades in NorthAmerica, it is still widely used in India, Latin America, Poland, and Bulgaria. The primary rationale behind an episiotomy is related to the nature ratherthan the size of the tear. Many physicians use episiotomies because theybelieve that it will lessen perineal trauma, minimize postpartum pelvic floordysfunction by reducing anal sphincter muscle damage, reduce the loss ofblood at delivery, and protect against neonatal trauma. In many casesthough, episiotomies cause all of these problems. Research has shown thatnatural tears typically are less severe (although this is perhaps not surprisingsince episiotomy is designed for when natural tearing will cause significantrisks/trauma). Slow delivery of the head in between contractions will result inthe least perineal damage.

Episiotomy is indicated if:-The baby's shoulders are stuck (shoulder dystocia), though theepisiotomy does not resolve this problem, it allows the operatormore room to perform manoeuvres to free shoulder from thepelvis.-There is a serious risk to the mother of second or third degreetearing (possibly into the anus and rectum)-In some cases where a caesarean section is not indicated butdelivery is adversely affected-'Natural' tearing will cause an increased risk of maternaldisease being vertically transmitted-The baby is very large-Rigid perineal muscles-When instrumental delivery is indicated (forceps delivery)-When a woman has undergone FGM (female genital mutilation)an anterior and or mediolateral episiotomy may be indicated.-Prolonged late decelerations or fetal bradycardia during activepushing. The episiotomy will allow for a quicker delivery (usuallywith forceps)

Esophagectomy or Oesophagectomy (regional variation in spelling) is thesurgical removal of all or part of the esophagus (also spelled 'oesophagus'). The esophagus, sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in vertebrateswhich consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from thepharynx to the stomach.

· To correct a congenital defect in newborns where theesophagus has a closure and needs to be opened to allow forpassage of food – called esophageal atresia · Cancer of the esophagus · Blockage or occlusions caused by burns or scarring

Reduction is a medical procedure to restore a fracture or dislocation to thecorrect alignment. When a bone fractures, the fragments lose their alignmentin the form of displacement or angulation.

For the fractured bone to heal without any deformity, the bonyfragments must be re-aligned to their normal anatomicalposition. Orthopedic surgeons attempt to recreate the normalanatomy of the fractured bone by reduction.

A gastrectomy is a partial or full surgical removal of the stomach. Gastrectomies are performed to treat cancer and perforationsof the stomach wall.

A gastroenterostomy is the surgical creation of a connection between thestomach and the jejunum (the upper small intestine). This allows forbypassing any obstructions caused by scarred tissue or pyloric stenosis.Surgical risks increase with adults older than 60 and for newborns / infants(under a year).

Allows for normal functioning of the gastrointestinal system (anddigestion)

Gastrostomy refers to a surgical opening into the stomach.

Creation of an artificial external opening into the stomach fornutritional support or gastrointestinal compression. The openingmay be used for feeding, such as with a gastrostomy tube.

Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy is a surgical technique that allowsplacement of a feeding tube – without having to use a general anesthetic orcreate a surgical incision in the abdomen (laparotomy). P.E.G.

PEG administration of enteral feeds is the most commonly usedmethod of nutritional support for patients in the community.Many stroke patients, for example, are at risk of aspirationpneumonia due to poor control over the swallowing muscles;some will benefit from a PEG to maintain nutrition. PEGs mayalso be inserted to decompress the stomach in cases of gastricvolvulus.

Hair transplantation is a surgical technique that involves moving skincontaining hair follicles from one part of the body (the donor site) to bald orbalding parts (the recipient site). It is primarily used to treat male patternbaldness, whereby grafts containing hair follicles that are genetically resistantto balding are transplanted to the bald area of the scalp. The risk of doing this surgical procedure increases if...-The sides and back of the head have poor quality hair or hair follicles-Hair transplanting was done prior to hair loss coming to a complete stop first

Male pattern baldness (receding hairlines or large bald spots),which is an inherited gene / trait can be corrected using hairtransplant (and appearance is improved (in some people’sview)). However, it is also used to restore eyelashes, eyebrows, andbeard hair, and to fill in scars caused by accidents and surgerysuch as face-lifts and previous hair transplants. Hairtransplantation differs from skin grafting in that grafts containalmost all of the epidermis and dermis surrounding the hairfollicle and hair transplantation has many tiny grafts that aretransplanted - rather than a single strip of skin.

A hammer toe is a deformity of the proximal interphalangeal joint of thesecond, third, or fourth toe causing it to be permanently bent, resembling ahammer. Hammer toe most frequently results from wearing poor-fitting shoes that canforce the toe into a bent position, such as excessively high heels or shoesthat are too short or narrow for the foot. Having the toes bent for longperiods of time can cause the muscles in them to shorten, resulting in thehammer toe deformity. This is often found in conjunction with bunions orother foot problems. It can also be caused by muscle, nerve, or jointdamage resulting from conditions such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis,stroke.

The goal of corrective hammer toe surgery is to straighten andalign the afflicted toe, ensuring the bones fuse in the rightposition.-Prevent permanent deformity -Relieve painful calluses.

A diseased heart is replaced with a healthy heart. Normally a donor heart(from a recently deceased person) – allograft – is used as the replacementheart.

A heart transplant may be required due to coronary arterydisease; valvular disease with congestive heart failure;congenital heart disease; or end-stage heart failure (due to anyone of the previously mentioned items).

A heart-lung transplant is a procedure carried out to replace both heart andlungs in a single operation. Due to a shortage of suitable donors, it is a rareprocedure.

Conditions which may necessitate a heart-lung transplantinclude:· Congenital problems (defects present at birth) affectingthe heart and lungs · Pulmonary hypertension · A second transplant after the first transplant was rejectedor failed to operate satisfactorily Candidates for a heart-lung transplant are usually required tobe: Under 55 years old; Have no other medical conditions (e.g.AIDS, Diabetes, Hepatitis); Mentally sound; and Capable offollowing a post-operative regimen of exercise andimmunosuppressant drugs.

Valve replacement surgery is the replacement of one or more of the heartvalves with either an artificial heart valve or a bioprosthesis (homograft fromhuman tissue or xenograft e.g. from pig).

A mitral valve replacement / repair is performed to treat severecases of mitral valve prolapse, heart valve stenosis, or othervalvular diseases. Since a mitral valve replacement is an openheart surgical procedure, it requires placing the patient oncardiopulmonary bypass to stop blood flow through the heartwhen it is opened up. The aortic valve can be affected by a range of diseases; thevalve can either become leaky (aortic insufficiency /regurgitation) or partially blocked (aortic stenosis).

A calcaneal spur (or heel spur) is a radiological (X-ray) finding of bonecalcification (abnormal bone growth) on the heel. It can be associated withplantar fasciitis and ankylosing spondylitis.

Relief of pain

Hemorrhoids are dilated veins in the anus and rectum. External hemorrhoidsare those that occur outside the anal verge and are very painful. Internalhemorrhoids are those that occur inside the rectum, are usually painless, butmay exhibit rectal bleeding. Hemorrhoid banding allows for the removal ofhemorrhoids using a minimally invasive technique.

Hemorrhoid banding is done to resolve excessive bleeding;pain; itching; and / or prolapse of dilated veins in the rectal / analarea. Painful thrombosed hemorrhoids can gain relief using thismethod.

A hemorrhoid is a varicose vein on the outside of the anus or just inside therectum.Hemorrhoidectomy is the surgical removal of hemorrhoids.

Hemorrhoidectomy is done to relieve pain, bleeding, and itching.Thrombosed hemorrhoids (hemorrhoids that contain a bloodclot) are removed to relieve severe pain.

A hiatus hernia is the protrusion (or herniation) of the upper part of thestomach into the thorax through a tear or weakness in the diaphragm.

This procedure will relieve painful symptoms and prevent thestomach from pushing up through the diaphragm opening andinto the chest cavity. It will also prevent stomach acid from moving up into theesophagus (which can cause inflammation, pain, scarring, andcancer).

An incisional hernia occurs in an area of weakness caused by anincompletely healed surgical wound. The intestine may protrude through thisweak area in the abdomen. The protrusion will show as an obvious bulge.

To relieve the pain that is caused if a portion of the intestine istwisted or if blood vessels are obstructed (potentially causingtissue death).

An inguinal hernia is a protrusion of abdominal-cavity contents through theinguinal canal. They are very common and their repair is one of the mostfrequently performed surgical operations. The intestines can get caught inthe hernia opening with the risk of being pinched within the hernia(incarcerated hernia) causing an intestinal obstruction or lack of blood flow(strangulated hernia) – leading to death of tissue.

It is considered a medical emergency if the patient has a herniathat bulges through the abdominal muscles and is seen as abulge in the skin or if the intestine is caught in the hernia areaand is a strangulated (blood supply cut off) hernia. It is advised to have an inguinal hernia surgically repaired at theearliest possible time due to the risks involved in leaving theinguinal hernia untreated.

A hernia is present at the site of the umbilicus (commonly called a navel, orbelly button) in the newborn; although sometimes quite large, allowing theintestine to protrude through the opening. In infants, these hernias mightresolve without any treatment by around the age of 5 years; however, mostsurgeons will repair the hernia 6 weeks after the baby is born. An acquired umbilical hernia (usually in adult men and women) directlyresults from increased intra-abdominal pressure caused by obesity, heavylifting, a long history of coughing, or multiple pregnancies. Umbilical herniorrhaphy allows for closure of this defective or weakenedarea.

This surgical procedure is done to improve patient appearance,relieve pain and prevent gangrene in the intestines (if theintestines have been strangulated in the hernia).

Hip nailing, (also called hip pinning) is done to stabilize a fracture of the hipjoint. Plates, pins, and / or screws are used to hold the fractured pieces ofbone in correct alignment.

Hip nailing is desired, especially if the patient is elderly, toprevent long-term bed rest. Confinement to bed (with theimmobility involved) could cause other complications such aspneumonia.

A hydrocelectomy is the removal of a (testicular) hydrocele. A hydrocele denotes an accumulation of serous fluid in a bodily cavity. In thisspecific case it is the accumulation of fluid around a testicle. It can be due totrauma, cancer, or a hernia. Hydroceles often occur in newborns but it is possible to occur in adults.

· A congenital hydrocele, in a newborn, needs to be corrected.Often it is corrected at the time that an inguinal hernia repair iscompleted.· Hydrocele in an adult can be very uncomfortable due to thesize between the legs. · The hydrocele can be large and unsightly · A testicular cancer may be concealed by the hydrocele;thus, removal is necessary.

Hypospadias is a birth defect of the urethra, in the male, that involves anabnormally placed urinary meatus (opening). Instead of opening at the tip ofthe glans of the penis, a hypospadic urethra opens anywhere along a line(the urethral groove) running from the tip along the underside (ventral aspect)of the shaft to the junction of the penis and scrotum or perineum. An urethroplasty is an operation for the repair of an injury or a defect in thewalls of the urethra.

abnormally placed urinary meatus (opening). Instead of opening at the tip ofthe glans of the penis, a hypospadic urethra opens anywhere along a line(the urethral groove) running from the tip along the underside (ventral aspect)of the shaft to the junction of the penis and scrotum or perineum. An urethroplasty is an operation for the repair of an injury or a defect in thewalls of the urethra. First degree hypospadias are primarily a cosmetic defect andhave little effect on function except for direction of the urinarystream. If uncorrected, a second or third degree hypospadiascan make male urination messy, necessitate that it beperformed sitting, impair delivery of semen into the vagina(possibly creating problems with fertility), or interfere witherections. In developed countries, most hypospadias aresurgically repaired in infancy. Surgical repair of first and seconddegree hypospadias is nearly always successful during the firstprocedure, usually performed in the first year of life by apediatric urologist or a plastic surgeon. - Correcting abnormal urination patterns- Restore sexual function- Prevent urinary tract infections

Hypospadias is a birth defect of the urethra in the male that involves anabnormally placed urinary meatus (opening). Instead of opening at the tip ofthe glans of the penis, a hypospadic urethra opens anywhere along a line(the urethral groove) running from the tip along the underside (ventral aspect)of the shaft to the junction of the penis and scrotum or perineum. A urethroplasty is an operation for the repair of an injury or a defect in thewalls of the urethra

First degree hypospadias are primarily a cosmetic defect andhave little effect on function except for direction of the urinarystream. A second or third degree hypospadias can make maleurination messy, necessitate that it be performed sitting, impairdelivery of semen into the vagina (possibly creating problemswith fertility), or interfere with erections. -Correcting abnormal urination patterns-Restore sexual function-Prevent urinary tract infections

Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus (and possibly the cervix). The removal of the ovaries together with the fallopian tubes is called salpingo-oophorectomy. In Hysterectomy WITH Salpingo-oophorectomy the uterus, cervix, fallopiantubes and ovaries are removed through an incision made in the abdomen.

The uterus would be removed for any of the following reasons:Suspected or actual cancer; fibroid tumours; prolapsed uterus;endometriosis; PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease); chronicpelvic infection; chronic bleeding; fibroids; severe menstrual pain(rare); or voluntary sterilization (normally done by tubal ligation –much less invasive surgery). The fallopian tubes and ovaries would be removed for any of thefollowing reasons: Suspected or actual cancer of the ovaries;ovarian pregnancy; tubal pregnancy; ovarian damage caused byendometriosis; ovarian abscess; or in gender transition fromwoman to man.

Abdominal hysterectomy (without salpingo-oophorectomy) is the removal ofthe uterus and the cervix ONLY – through an incision in the abdomen (alaparotomy). The fallopian tubes and ovaries are NOT removed – but left inplace. If there is no need to remove the tubes and ovaries, some physiciansfeel it is best to leave them in place.

Abdominal hysterectomy (without salpingo-oophorectomy) isdone to treat: · Chronic, heavy uterine bleeding · Chronic pelvic infection · Endometriosis · Suspected or actual cancer of the uterus · Prolapsed uterus (a uterus that has fallen or dropped intothe vagina) · Sterilization (by choice) · Fibroid tumours

A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus. This will likely includethe cervix and cervical tissue. Often, in conjunction with vaginalhysterectomy, a colporrhaphy may be performed.

Vaginal hysterectomy may be done to treat a variety of gynecologicalproblems, including the following...FibroidsEndometriosis Gynecologic CancerUterine ProlapseAbnormal vaginal bleedingChronic Pelvic Pain There may be other gynecological problems that a physician may choose totreat with a vaginal hysterectomy. The type of hysterectomy will be thephysician’s choice. Colporrhaphy (also called vaginal wall repair, anterior and/or posteriorcolporrhaphy, anterior and/or posterior vaginal wall repair, or simply A/Prepair or A&P repair) is a surgical procedure in humans that repairs a defectin the wall of the vagina. It is the surgical intervention for both cystocele(protrusion of the urinary bladder into the vagina) and rectocele (protrusion ofthe rectum into the vagina). A cystocele is a medical condition that occurs when the tough fibrous wallbetween a woman's bladder and her vagina (the pubocervical fascia) is tornby childbirth, allowing the bladder to herniate into the vagina. A rectocele results from a tear in the rectovaginal septum (which is normallya tough, fibrous, sheet-like divider between the rectum and vagina). Rectaltissue bulges through this tear and into the vagina as a hernia. There are twomain causes of this tear: childbirth and hysterectomy.

TVH (Total Vaginal hysterectomy) - (including salpingo-oophorectomy) is theremoval of the uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, and ovaries through an incisionmade in the top region of the vagina. Occasionally the cervix will be left as astump end of the vagina. Often, this procedure is done at the same time as acolporrhaphy (the surgical repair of a defect in the vaginal wall, including acystocele (when the bladder protrudes into the vagina) and a rectocele(when the rectum protrudes into the vagina).

The uterus would be removed for any of the following reasons:Suspected or actual cancer; fibroid tumours; prolapsed uterus;endometriosis; PID (Pelvic Inflammatory Disease); chronicpelvic infection; chronic bleeding; fibroids; severe menstrual pain(rare); or voluntary sterilization (normally done by tubal ligation –much less invasive surgery). The fallopian tubes and ovaries would be removed for any of thefollowing reasons: Suspected or actual cancer of the ovaries;ovarian pregnancy; tubal pregnancy; ovarian damage caused byendometriosis; or ovarian abscess. There is little difference between the reasons for removal ofuterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes vaginally or abdominally. Thechoice of vaginal or abdominal removal is based on surgeonpreferences and patient needs.

An ileostomy is the surgical creation of an opening in the ileum, the lowerpart of the small intestine. This creates an ‘ostomy’ or a ‘stoma’ to theoutside of the body through which all fecal matter will leave the body.Surgical risks increase for infants and newborns.

Ileostomies are necessary where disease or injury has renderedthe large intestine incapable of safely processing intestinalwaste, typically because the colon has been partially or whollyremoved. Diseases of the large intestine which may requiresurgical removal include: Crohn's disease and Ulcerative Colitis An ileostomy may also be necessary in the treatment ofcolorectal cancer.

The cornea is the front, transparent part of the eyeball. Keratoplasty is the removal of a damaged or diseased cornea and replacingit with a healthy cornea. The healthy cornea is obtained from a donor who isrecently deceased (and is deemed to have no health issues).

Done to prevent blindness and improve visual acuity (or regainnormal vision).

Kidney transplantation or renal transplantation is the transplant of a kidneyinto a patient with end-stage renal disease. Kidney transplantation is typicallyclassified as deceased-donor (formerly known as cadaveric) or living-donortransplantation depending on the source of the donor organ. Living-donorrenal transplants are further characterized as genetically related (living-related) or non-related (living-unrelated) transplants, depending on whether abiological relationship exists between the donor and recipient.

Kidney transplantation is done to give the recipient normalkidney function.

Laceration repair allows the closure of open wounds. These can besuperficial wounds or deep wounds, which would include deeper muscle,nerves, and blood supply to the area. A laceration is a type of injury in which skin is torn, cut or punctured (an open,jagged wound).

Laceration repair is done to...-Close skin edges to improve healing-Allow the identification of injuries below skin level-Prevent infection and blood loss.

The Lacrimal ducts (Tear Ducts) are in the corners of the eyes – close to thenose. Occasionally infection or foreign matter will block the duct. Newborns may beborn with the tear ducts being only partly open.

Lacrimal Duct surgery is done to unblock a complete or partialblockage of the tear duct (if it has not responded to non-surgicaltreatment).

Laminectomy is a spine operation to remove the portion of the vertebralbone called the lamina. It has usually moved (protruded) from the normalposition.

To relieve the pain associated with a ruptured vertebral disk.

An operation performed in the abdomen or pelvis through small incisions(usually 0.5–1.5 cm in length) with the aid of a camera. It can either be usedto inspect and diagnose a condition or to perform surgery. Laparoscopy uses a few ‘small’ incisions instead of a larger incision – likethat used in Laparotomy.

Laparoscopy is a useful procedure for dealing with...-Pelvic cysts or masses-Infertility in women (diagnosing reasons for infertility)-Treatment of endometriosis - Tubal ligation (voluntary)- Uterine fibroids- Treat appendicitis- And diagnosing and treating many other abdominal disorders

Laparotomy is a surgical procedure involving an incision through theabdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity. It is a diagnosticprocedure to allow physicians to examine the abdominal organs. The incisionmade during a Laparotomy is much larger than the small incisions used inlaparoscopy.

A laparotomy may be performed for the following reasons...- treat blunt force trauma to the abdomen- treat stab wounds to the abdomen- to examine the abdominal organs -repair abnormalities- remove diseased organs / tissues-repair hernias-collection of fluid / tissue for biopsy and diagnosis

Laryngectomy is the removal of the larynx and separation of the airway fromthe mouth, nose, and esophagus. The laryngectomee breathes through anopening in the neck, a stoma. The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the neck ofmammals involved in protecting the trachea and sound production. Itmanipulates pitch and volume. The larynx houses the vocal folds, which arean essential component of phonation. The vocal folds are situated just belowwhere the tract of the pharynx splits into the trachea and the esophagus.

It is done in cases of laryngeal cancer. However, many laryngealcancer cases are now treated only with radiation andchemotherapy or other laser procedures, and laryngectomy isperformed when those treatments fail to conserve the larynx.

Laryngectomy is the removal of the larynx (the voice box) and separation ofthe airway from the mouth, nose, and esophagus. The laryngectomeebreathes through an opening in the neck, a stoma (a tracheostomy).

Cancer of the larynx. However, many laryngeal cancer casesare now treated only with radiation and chemotherapy or otherlaser procedures, and laryngectomy is performed when thosetreatments fail to conserve the larynx.

A laryngoscope (larynx + scope) is a medical device that is used to obtain aview of the vocal folds and the glottis, which is the space between the cords.The larynx is the structure at the top of the trachea. It controls the voice.

Helps in intubation during the administration of generalanesthesia or for mechanical ventilation.Detects causes of voice problems, such as breathy voice,hoarse voice, weak voice, or no voice. Detects causes of throat and ear pain.Evaluates difficulty in swallowing, a persistent sensation or lumpin the throat, or mucous with blood.Detects strictures or injury to the throat, or obstructive massesin the airway.

LASIK (the acronym for ‘Laser Assisted in situ Keratomileusis’) is a type ofrefractive surgery for correcting myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism.

This is done as the surgical treatment of vision problems, and isa viable alternative to wearing corrective eyeglasses or contactlenses for many patients.

Lipoma removal is the surgical removal of this fatty mass. A lipoma is a benign, fatty mass (also called a tumour). Lipomas are soft tothe touch, usually movable, and are generally painless. Lipomas normallyshow on the back, legs or arms. They can lie on top of the muscle (easier toremove) or under the muscle (which is more difficult to remove).

Done for cosmetic reasons – to improve the person’sappearance (especially if it is a large lipoma).Occasionally a lipoma can cause irritation or discomfort (if it is atthe bra strap area or at the waist line) A lipoma progressing to cancer is a rare occurrence (but thelipoma may be removed to prevent this eventuality).

Lithotripsy is a non-invasive treatment of kidney stones (urinary calculosis)and biliary calculi (stones in the gallbladder or in the liver) using an acousticpulse to crush the stones (inside the body) without any incision. Most kidneystones are small and can be passed during urination. About 30% of kidneystones are too large to be passed and require lithotripsy. Lithotripsy is also called: ESWL (Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy).

Lithotripsy is done for renal calculi that are too large to passthrough normal urination. Large stones may be stuck in the kidney or in the renal pelvis(the area between the kidney and the ureter) or in the upperportion of the ureter.

Liver Transplantation is the replacement of a diseased liver with a healthyliver -obtained immediately after the death from a compatible donor. (Thedonor must have the same immunological characteristics). Another method is the use of a segment of the liver from a living, relateddonor, who has the same immunological characteristics.

Liver transplantation currently is a well accepted treatmentoption for end-stage liver disease and acute liver failure.

A lumbar puncture (colloquially known as a spinal tap): The spinal column is‘tapped’ in order to collect spinal fluid for diagnostics. At times, it can be atherapeutic procedure.

It is performed in order to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) for biochemical, microbiological, and cytological analysis. "Therapeutic lumbar puncture" is to relieve increased intracranialpressure. A Lumbar puncture is also used to administer the injection ofspinal anesthetic (or epidural).

A pneumonectomy (or pneumectomy) is a surgical procedure to remove alung. Removal of just one lobe of the lung is specifically referred to as alobectomy, and that of a segment of the lung as a wedge resection (orsegmentectomy).

Wedge resection is done to remove a localized portion ofdiseased lung, such as early stage lung cancer. The mostcommon reason for a pneumonectomy is to remove tumouroustissue arising from lung cancer.

Lung Transplantation (Pulmonary Transplantation) is the replacement ofdiseased lungs (the recipient) with healthy lungs (from a donor who has justdied and has compatible immunological characteristics with the recipient).This may involve one or both lungs. (The lungs must be transplanted veryquickly after the death of the donor).

Pulmonary hypertension; respiratory failure; cystic fibrosis;bronchiectasis

RADICAL Modified radical mastectomy is a surgical procedure in which the breasttissue and lymph nodes of the axilla are removed as a treatment for breastcancer. The underlying chest muscle (including pectoralis major andpectoralis minor) is not removed.

For malignancy (cancer) of the breast

Lumpectomy (Partial Mastectomy) is a common surgical proceduredesigned to remove a discrete lump, usually a benign tumour or breastcancer, from an affected man or woman's breast. As the tissue removed isgenerally quite limited and the procedure relatively non-invasive, comparedto a mastectomy, a lumpectomy is considered a viable means of "breastconservation" or "breast preservation" surgery with all the attendant physicaland emotional advantages of such an approach.

If cancer (malignancy) is suspected or confirmed in the breast –and if a lumpectomy is appropriate – the cancer will be removedusing this method.Lumpectomy may be performed for ductal carcinoma in situ(DCIS), for invasive ductal carcinoma, or for other conditions.

The most dangerous form of skin cancer is malignant melanoma. Melanomaremoval is the removal of any skin lesion that is suspected of beingmalignant melanoma. Melanoma is a malignant tumour of melanocytes. Such cells are foundpredominantly in skin, but are also found in the bowel and the eye.Melanoma is one of the less common types of skin cancer, but causes themajority (75%) of skin cancer related deaths. Melanocytes are normallypresent in skin, being responsible for the production of the dark pigmentmelanin. Despite many years of intensive laboratory and clinical research,early surgical resection of thin tumours still gives the greatest chance of cure. To treat malignant (cancerous) melanoma.

Meniscectomy is the removal of an injured meniscus (cartilage). Often, thedamage to the cartilage is the result of a torn ligament or general wear andtear.

The removal of damaged cartilage will help prevent permanentdamage to the knee joint.

The most common neuroma is Morton’s neuroma in the foot – and is benign.It is a thickening or enlargement of the nerve. It occurs between the secondand third toes or the third and fourth toes producing great pain. The causehas not been determined. This problem is characterized by numbness and pain, relieved by goingbarefoot (not wearing shoes).

Removal of Morton’s Neuroma will relieve the pain.

A leiomyoma is a fibroid tumour in the uterus. Myomectomy is the removal ofthese tumours through a lower abdominal incision.

Removal is called for when the fibroid causes pain or pressure,abnormal bleeding, or interferes with reproduction.

Myomectomy, sometimes also fibroidectomy, refers to the surgical removalof uterine leiomyomas (benign smooth muscle mass), also known asfibroids. In contrast to a hysterectomy, the uterus remains preserved and thewoman retains her reproductive potential.

Myomectomy is done to treat:-Pressure on the bladder- Abnormal bleeding (either between periods or heavy bleedingduring your period)-Fertility issues (trouble getting pregnant)- Pain or discomfort when having sexual intercourse-Pelvic pain

Myringotomy is a surgical procedure in which a tiny incision is created in theeardrum to relieve pressure caused by the excessive build-up of fluid, or todrain pus. If a patient requires myringotomy for drainage or ventilation of the middleear, this generally implies that the Eustachian tube is either partially orcompletely obstructed.

Myringotomy is performed to prevent temporary or permanentloss of hearing and / or to relieve pain caused by pressure. Myringotomy is often performed as a treatment for otitis media(inflammation of the middle ear, or middle ear infection.).

Nail removal is the complete removal or partial removal of a fingernail ortoenail.

Nail Removal procedure is done to...-Correct abnormal nail growth-Treat a fungal infection of the nail-Relieve pain or discomfort association with and ingrown toenail-Aid in the healing of trauma to the nail (something has droppedon it or a splinter has gone beneath the nail)

Nasal polyps are abnormal growths or masses arising mainly from themucous membranes of the nose and paranasal sinuses. They areovergrowths of the mucosa that frequently accompany allergic rhinitis. Theyare freely moveable and non-tender.

Nasal Polypectomy is done to restore normal breathing.

Nephrectomy is the surgical removal of a kidney.

Nephrectomy is done when there is:- Suspected or confirmed cancer of the kidney- A kidney transplant is required (due to kidney failure)- Kidney trauma- Non-functioning kidney caused by infection

Percutaneous nephrostomy is a surgical procedure in which the renal pelvis(the funnel-like dilated part of the ureter in the kidney) is punctured whilstusing fluoroscopic imaging as guidance. Images are obtained once anantegrade pyelogram (an injection of contrast with a fine needle) has beenperformed. This contrast is used to show calcifications at the renal pelvis. Anephrostomy tube may then be placed to allow drainage.

To create an opening into the kidney to allow for urinarydrainage (either temporary or permanent)

Orchidectomy (also spelled as Orchiectomy) is the removal of one or both ofthe testicles.

To diagnose / remove cancer of the testicle and spermatic cord

Orchidopexy (also spelled Orchiopexy) is a surgery to move an undescendedtesticle into the scrotum into the normal position and permanently fix it there.

It is done on boys with cryptorchidism (the absence, from thescrotum, of one or both testes). It is also done to correct testicle torsion (twisting) of the testicle.This is normally done before the age of 2. Some patients remainundiagnosed until their teenage years and undergo the surgeryat that time.

Otoplasty, is a cosmetic surgery to change the appearance of a person'sexternal ears. Otoplasty can take many forms, such as bringing the earscloser to the head (often called ear pinning), reducing the size of very bigears, or reshaping various bends in the cartilage. Otoplasty surgery caninvolve a combination of moving, reshaping, adding, or removing structuralear elements. The surgery has more risks involved if there has been previous severe earinjury such as deep lacerations, burns, tears, etc.

Cosmetic reasons: If the outer ear sticks out from the head,‘pinning’ can improve appearance. Five years old is theyoungest age to do this – since the ears will now be 90% ofadult size. Trauma or injury: Repair or reconstruct a badly injured /damaged ear or a missing ear.

Otoplasty is the reconstructive or cosmetic surgery of the outer ear. Thissurgery only involves the outer ear.

Otoplasty can take many forms, such as bringing the earscloser to the head (often called ear pinning), reducing the size ofvery big ears, or reshaping various bends in the cartilage. Otherreconstructive procedures deal with the deformed, or absent(microtic) ears. Otoplasty surgery can involve a combination ofmoving, reshaping, adding, or removing structural ear elements.

This procedure allows for the removal of cysts on the ovary. An ovarian cyst is any collection of fluid, surrounded by a very thin wall, withinan ovary. Any ovarian follicle that is larger than about two centimeters istermed an ovarian cyst. An ovarian cyst can be as small as a pea, or largerthan an orange. Most ovarian cysts are functional in nature, and harmless. Ovarian cystsaffect women of all ages. They occur most often, however, during a woman'schildbearing years.

This procedure is done to treat...-suspected or known cancer of the ovaries- ruptured ovarian cysts- twisted ovarian cysts

A pacemaker (or artificial pacemaker, so as not to be confused with theheart's natural pacemaker) is a medical device which uses electricalimpulses, delivered by electrodes contacting the heart muscles, to regulatethe beating of the heart.

The primary purpose of a pacemaker is to maintain anadequate heart rate, either because the heart's nativepacemaker is not fast enough, or there is a block in the heart'selectrical conduction system. Modern pacemakers are externallyprogrammable and allow the cardiologist to select the optimumpacing modes for individual patients. Some combine apacemaker and defibrillator in a single implantable device.Others have multiple electrodes stimulating differing positionswithin the heart to improve synchronization of the lowerchambers of the heart.

A pancreas transplant is an organ transplant that involves implanting ahealthy pancreas (one that can produce insulin) into a person who usuallyhas diabetes (whose pancreas does not produce insulin). Transplant – To take living tissue (or an organ) and implant into another partof the body or in another body. Summary: An abnormal or diseased pancreas and duodenum is replacedwith a healthy (donor) pancreas and duodenum. Patients with pancreatic cancer are not eligible for a pancreas transplant –since pancreatic cancer has a very high mortality rate (and the cancer couldrecur).

The pancreas, in diabetics, stops producing enough insulin(called Diabetes Mellitus) and can cause complications such askidney failure (nephropathy) and damage to the retina(retinopathy). The pancreas transplant is done to avoid thesecomplications. Usually a pancreatic transplant is done on a patient with Type 1diabetes and end-stage renal disease associated with diabetes.

Parathyroidectomy is the surgical removal of one or more parathyroidglands. (These glands surround the thyroid gland).

This procedure is used to remove primary tumours orhyperplasia of the glands, especially when they produceexcessive parathyroid hormone. The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain thebody's calcium level within a very narrow range, so that thenervous and muscular systems can function properly.

Kneecap removal, or patellectomy, is the partial or total surgical removal ofthe patella, commonly called the kneecap.

Patellectomy is done to treat...-a fractured or shattered kneecap-a dislocating kneecap (that happens often)-osteoarthritis (degenerative arthritis) that is very painful-severe degeneration in the patellofemoral joint

A peptic ulcer (defined as mucosal erosions equal to or greater than 0.5 cm)of an area of the gastrointestinal tract that is usually acidic and thusextremely painful.

Peptic ulcer surgery is used to treat complications of pepticulcers that affect the esophagus; stomach; and small intestine(duodenum and jejunum). · Complications of peptic ulcers · Gastrointestinal bleeding · Pain · Scarring (causing obstruction) preventing the contents ofthe stomach from moving on to the intestine · Perforation of the stomach wall (Peritonitis is caused if thestomach contents go through a perforation into the abdominalcavity. This requires immediate surgery).

In medicine, pericardiocentesis is a procedure where fluid is aspirated fromthe pericardium (the sac enveloping the heart).

An accumulation of fluid within the pericardium createsexcessive pressure, which then prevents the heart from fillingnormally with blood. This can critically decrease the amount ofblood that is pumped from the heart, which can be lethal. Theremoval of the excess fluid reverses this dangerous process.Examples of the need for fluid analysis would be to differentiatewhether a fluid collection within the pericardium is due to aninfection, spread of cancer, or possibly an autoimmunecondition.

Periodontology or Periodontics is the specialty of dentistry that studiessupporting structures of teeth, diseases, and conditions that affect them. Thesupporting tissues are known as the periodontium, which includes the gingiva(gums), alveolar bone, cementum (the bone-like connective tissue thatcovers the root of a tooth), and the periodontal ligament.

The removal of diseased gum and bone will prevent the spreadof gum infection.

A pilonidal cyst, also referred to as a pilonidal abscess, pilonidal sinus orsacrococcygeal fistula, is a cyst or abscess (a collection of pus (deadneutrophils) that has accumulated in a cavity formed by the tissue in whichthe pus resides on the basis of an infectious process) near or on the natalcleft of the buttocks that often contains hair and skin debris. Essentially, the cyst is just over the tailbone and may consist of sweat, skin,and hair. This procedure is the removal of a pilonidal cyst.

Pilonidal cyst removal is done to relieve pain / discomfort.Removal is also required to prevent the spread of infection.

Polypectomy is the medical term for the removal of a polyp. Polypectomycan be performed by excision if the polyp is external (on the skin).Gastrointestinal polyps can be removed endoscopically through colonoscopyor esophagogastroduodenoscopy, or surgically if the polyp is too large to beremoved endoscopically. A polyp is a fleshy growth of the lining in the nose or in the wall of the colon /rectum. Often a polyp is considered a sign of possible malignancy (mainly inthe colon).Rectal / Colon polypectomy is the surgical removal of polyp(s) from themembranous lining of the rectum or colon.

Rectal / Colon Polypectomy is done to relieve symptoms of painor bleeding as well as to remove a potentially cancerous growth.

Removal of an embolus (blood clot) that has blocked blood circulation to thefoot and leg. The popliteal artery is defined as the extension of the "superficial" femoralartery after passing through the adductor canal and adductor hiatus abovethe knee.

It is necessary to correct the blood flow to the legs to improvemuscular function, prevent gangrene (and potential amputation),and to allow patients to return to normal activities, if possible.

Resection, in surgery, refers to removal of an organ or lesion by cutting itaway from the body or the remainder of the tissue. Males have a prostate gland that is the size of a small ‘clementine’ or a‘walnut’. It surrounds the urethra (which is the tube that drains the urine fromthe bladder to the outside of the body). Many men’s prostate becomes largeraround or before the age of 50 years. When it becomes very much larger, itmakes the passage of urine more difficult since it ‘squeezes’ the urethra. Ifthe urine cannot pass it will back up to the bladder and then to the kidneys.

A TURP (Transurethral Resection of the Prostate) is done toremove the blockage caused by the enlarging prostate.

Suprapubic Prostatectomy is the removal, through an opening in theabdomen, of all or part of an enlarged or cancerous prostate gland. This willinvolve the prostate gland, the bladder, the urethra, and it will affect therectum. This type of open prostatectomy is suprapubic transvesical prostatectomy(SPP) where an incision is made in the bladder. SPP remains a commonsurgical treatment for BPH (Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy) in Africa but haslargely been replaced by TURP (Transurethral Resection of the Prostate) inthe North America for this application. SPP may be indicated for use withlarge patients.

This procedure is done to allow restoration of normal urination.

Pterygium most often refers to a benign growth of the conjunctiva. Thisgrowth may extend from the edge of the eye to the cornea.

Cosmetic reasons (improved appearance)Regain normal vision.

Radial keratotomy (RK) is a refractive surgical procedure to correct myopia(nearsightedness). This will involve the cornea (the transparent part thatcovers the iris (the part of the eye that shows eye colour)) and the pupil.Myopia and astigmatism are caused by an irregular curvature to the cornea.

This surgery allows the cornea to flatten as it heals – improvingvision by allowing rays of light to enter the eye differently.Hopefully, a person with nearsightedness will have enoughimprovement so that they no longer have to wear correctiveglasses.

A Radical Dissection of the Neck is the removal of ALL lymph nodes in theneck area. The neck dissection is a surgical procedure for control of neck lymph nodemetastasis from squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the head and neck. Theaim of the procedure is to remove lymph nodes from one side of the neckinto which cancer cells may have migrated. Metastasis of squamous cellcarcinoma into the lymph nodes of the neck reduce survival and is the mostimportant factor in the spread of the disease. The metastases may originatefrom SCC of the upper oral area and the digestive tract, including the oralcavity, tongue, nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypopharynx, and larynx, as well asthe thyroid, parotid and posterior scalp.

This procedure is done to treat cancer of the neck or the mouth(oral cavity). This cancer could metastasize (spread) to otherparts of the body if not treated.

A fistula is an abnormal passage. Rectovaginal fistula is a passage that joinsthe rectum to the vagina – allowing fecal matter to enter the vagina. If the opening between the rectum and vagina is wide it will allow bothflatulence and feces to escape through the vagina, leading to fecalincontinence. There is an association with recurrent urinary and vaginalinfections. Rectovaginal fistulae are often the result of trauma during childbirth (in whichcase it is known as obstetric fistula) in situations where there is inadequatehealth care, such as in some developing countries. Fistulas can also developin women and children who are raped. Rectovaginal fistulae can also be a symptom of various diseases, includinginfection by some bacterium, or the unintended result of surgery, such asepisiotomy or sexual reassignment surgery. They may present as acomplication of vaginal surgery, including vaginal hysterectomy. They are arecognized presentation of rectal carcinoma, or rarely diverticular disease ofthe bowel, or Crohn's disease. They are seen rarely after radiotherapytreatment for cervical cancer. Rectovaginal fistula repair is the surgical correction of an abnormalpassageway or tract between the rectum and the vagina.

To prevent fecal matter from entering the vagina; thereforecontaminating the urinary tract and vagina, leading to potentialinfection.

Rectovaginal fistula repair is the surgical correction of an abnormalpassageway or tract between the rectum and the vagina. A rectovaginal fistula is a medical condition where there is a fistula orabnormal connection between the rectum and the vagina. Rectovaginal fistula may be extremely debilitating. If the opening between therectum and vagina is wide, it will allow both flatulence and feces to escapethrough the vagina, leading to fecal incontinence. There is an association withrecurrent urinary and vaginal infections. This type of fistula can causepediatricians to misdiagnose imperforate anus in newborns. The rectovaginal fistula may occur from previous surgical procedures suchas episiotomy during childbirth or sexual reassignment surgery; radiationtherapy for cervical cancer; IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease); traumaduring childbirth; and infection. Rectovaginal fistula may be an indicator of cervical or rectal cancer. It canalso– but not commonly - be an indicator of diverticular disease or Crohn’s

To prevent fecal matter from entering the vagina; thereforecontaminating the urinary tract and vagina, leading to potentialinfection

The retina is a light sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye. Retinal detachment is a disorder of the eye where the retina peels away fromits underlying layer of support tissue. Initial detachment may be localized, butwithout rapid treatment the entire retina may detach, leading to vision lossand blindness. It is a medical emergency.

To prevent the loss of vision.

Rhinoplasty (Greek: Rhinos, "Nose" + Plassein, "to shape") is a surgicalprocedure in order to improve the function (reconstructive surgery) or theappearance (cosmetic surgery) of a human nose. Rhinoplasty is alsocommonly called "nose reshaping" or "nose job". Rhinoplasty can beperformed to meet aesthetic goals or for reconstructive purposes to correcttrauma, birth defects or breathing problems. Septoplasty can be done at thesame time as Rhinoplasty. Rhinoplasty can be done at the same time as Septoplasty.

Why? - Rhinoplasty is done to improve one’s appearance.

Rhinoplasty is a surgical procedure which is usually performed in order toimprove the function (reconstructive surgery) or the appearance (cosmeticsurgery) of a human nose. Rhinoplasty is also commonly called "nosereshaping" or "nose job". Rhinoplasty can be performed to meet aestheticgoals or for reconstructive purposes to correct trauma, birth defects orbreathing problems. Rhinoplasty can be combined with other surgicalprocedures such as chin augmentation to enhance the aesthetic results. Septoplasty is a corrective surgical procedure done to straighten the nasalseptum, the partition between the two nasal cavities. Ideally, the septumshould run down the center of the nose. When it deviates into one of thecavities, it narrows that cavity and impedes airflow.

To allow better breathing by opening blocked nasal passagesCosmetic – improved appearance

A facelift, technically known as a rhytidectomy (literally, surgical removal ofwrinkles), is a type of cosmetic surgery procedure used to give a moreyouthful appearance. It usually involves the removal of excess facial skin,with or without the tightening of underlying tissues, and the re-draping of theskin on the patient's face and neck.

Cosmetic reasons: For improvement of appearance - to lookyounger.

If a tooth is considered to be so threatened (because of decay, cracking,etc.) that future infection is considered likely or inevitable, a pulpectomy(removal of the pulp tissue) is advisable to prevent such infection. Usually,some inflammation and/or infection are already present within or below thetooth.

To save the original tooth (avoid extraction)

The rotator cuff or rotor cuff is the group of muscles and their tendons thatact to stabilize the shoulder. Prior to attempting surgery, resting the shoulder is the first thing to try. To reduce pain and swelling...Rest means ceasing movement of the affected area.Icing uses ice to reduce inflammation.Compression limits the swelling.Elevation involves placing the area higher to reduce inflammation andswelling.As with all muscle injuries, R.I.C.E. is the modality recommended byphysicians, physical therapists, athletic trainers, and chiropractors. Strengthening: The rotator cuff can be strengthened to rehabilitate shoulderinjuries, and prevent future ones. There are different exercises to target theindividual rotator cuff muscles.

Rotator cuff repair is done to treat: · tears of the rotator cuff that lead to immobility · rotator cuff impingement (the space between the upperarm and the shoulder blade is too narrow – making it that therotator cuff doesn’t move smoothly. The tendons get pinchedand worn between the two bones – causing rotator cuff tears)

This surgery is the removal of a cancerous tumour of the salivary glands.This involves the sublingual salivary glands (under the tongue) and thesubmaxillary salivary glands (under the jawbone).

Salivary Gland Tumour Removal is done when cancer exists oris suspected in the sublingual or submaxillary salivary glands. Oral cancers may originate in any of the tissues of the mouth.Often, your dentist will be the first to notice any problem.

This surgery is the removal of a cancerous tumour of the salivary glands.This may involve the sublingual salivary glands (under the tongue) and thesubmaxillary salivary glands (under the jawbone).

Salivary Gland Tumour Removal is done when cancer exists oris suspected in the sublingual or submaxillary salivary glands. Oral cancers may originate in any of the tissues of the mouth.

Sebaceous Cyst: A closed sac or cyst below the surface of the skin that hasa lining that resembles the uppermost part of a hair follicle and fills with afatty white, semi-solid material called sebum. Sebum is produced bysebaceous glands of the epidermis. Sebaceous cysts often happen behind the ear but can also occur on theface, scalp, neck, and trunk of the body. This procedure is the removal of this benign type of cyst.

Sebaceous cyst removal is done to treat (or prevent)...-Infection In addition, it can be done for cosmetic reasons to improve theappearance

Septoplasty is a corrective surgical procedure done to straighten the nasalseptum, the partition between the two nasal cavities. Ideally, the septumshould run down the center of the nose. When it deviates into one of thecavities, it narrows that cavity and impedes airflow. Nasal obstructionscaused by serious deviations frequently lead to chronic sinus problems. Rhinoplasty can be done at the same time as Septoplasty.

Septoplasty if done to open obstructed nasal passages.

Colectomy consists of the surgical resection of any extent of the largeintestine (colon). The sigmoid colon is the portion of the large intestine that ison the left side of the body and descends from the transverse colon to therectum.

The procedure is done to treat:Precancerous or malignant (cancerous) polypsColon cancerInfection and bleeding – caused by diverticulitisDiverticulitis and diverticular disease of the large intestine.Ruptured diverticular – causing peritonitis from the infection (dueto severe diverticulitis)TraumaInflammatory bowel disease such as Ulcerative Colitis orCrohn's disease

Skin grafting is a type of medical grafting involving the transplantation of skinfrom one place on the body to another part of the body that has no skin. Thetransplanted tissue is called a skin graft.

Skin grafting is often used to treat:- Extensive wounds or trauma-Burns- Areas of extensive skin loss due to infection such asnecrotizing fasciitis (commonly known as flesh-eating) is a rareinfection of the deeper layers of skin and subcutaneous tissues)or purpura fulminans (a hemorrhagic condition usuallyassociated with sepsis or previous infection) -Specific surgeries that may require skin grafts for healing tooccur

A lesion is an abnormal growth on the skin. Some of these growths may bewarts; senile keratoses; skin cancers; or moles. This procedure is theremoval of any lesion. The lesion could be benign or malignant (cancerous).

Skin lesion removal is used to treat...-Any skin abnormality that is suspected to be malignant.-Cosmetic reasons: Improving appearance-The lesion that becomes irritated by rubbing of clothing, seatbelt, etc.

Small bowel resection is the removal of a section of the small intestine(duodenum; jejunum; or ileum) due to disease.

It may be performed due to ...-cancer-necrosis (death of tissue)-enteritis (intestinal inflammation)- Intestinalobstruction Some patients require ileostomy after this procedure.

A splenectomy is a surgical procedure that partially or completely removesthe spleen. The spleen is a large organ on the left side of the abdominalcavity. The spleen, similar in structure to a large lymph node, acts as a bloodfilter.

The spleen may be removed for any of the following reasons...· When it becomes very large so that it becomes destructiveto platelets/red cells · For diagnosing certain lymphomas · Certain cases of wandering spleen · When platelets are destroyed in the spleen as a result of anauto-immune process (see also idiopathic thrombocytopenicpurpura) · When the spleen bleeds following physical trauma · Following spontaneous rupture · For long-term treatment of congenital erythropoieticporphyria (CEP) if severe hemolytic anemia develops · The spread of gastric cancer to splenic tissue · When using the splenic artery for kidney revascularisation inrenovascular hypertension.

The stapes or stirrup is the ‘stirrup-shaped’ small bone (the smallest andlightest bone in the human body) or ossicle in the middle ear. It transmits the sound vibrations from the incus to the membrane of the innerear inside the fenestra ovalis. The stapes is also stabilized by the stapediusmuscle, which is supplied by the facial nerve. If the stapes is fixed in position rather than easily moving, a conductivehearing loss is the result.

A stapedectomy is a surgical procedure of the middle earperformed to improve hearing. There are two major causes of stapes fixation. The first is adisease process of abnormal mineralization of the temporalbone called otosclerosis. The second is a congenitalmalformation of the stapes.

The eyes do not align with each other. Surgery does not change the vision; it attempts to align the eyes byshortening, lengthening, or changing the position of one or more of theextraocular eye muscles and is frequently the only way to achieve cosmeticimprovement. More than one operation may be required if the extent ofstrabismus is extreme. The surgery is usually done on children because the eye is still developing(and this will save the vision)

Strabismus surgery is done to...-Balance the appearance of the eyes (cosmetically)-Restore single binocular vision by realigning the eyes

Stress Incontinence is due essentially to insufficient strength of the pelvicfloor muscles (often as a result of multiple pregnancies, obesity, anddiabetes mellitus). Procedure to reduce the loss of small amounts of urine associated withcoughing, laughing, sneezing, exercising or other movements that increaseintra-abdominal pressure and thus increase pressure on the bladder. Theurethra is supported by fascia of the pelvic floor. If this support is insufficient,the urethra can move downward at times of increased abdominal pressure,allowing urine to pass.

Stress Incontinence Surgery is done to relieve uncontrolledurinary leaking.

Suction Lipectomy (liposuction) is a cosmetic surgery that removes fat frommany different sites on the human body. Areas affected can range from theabdomen, thighs and buttocks, to the neck, backs of the arms andelsewhere. The areas of the body that are usually worked on are the buttocks, theomentum (the apron of the abdomen), thighs, hips, and some small areaslike the chin.

Suction Lipectomy is usually done for cosmetic reasons – toimprove appearance. It is done on areas that will not decreasein size, even after dieting.

Cervicodorsal Sympathectomy is the removal of a portion of the sympatheticnerves located near the spinal cord in the upper back. The cerviocodorsalsympathetic nerves are responsible for control of contraction and expansionof small arteries in the arms, lungs, and ribs. They also control pain to theseareas. Definition of Sympathetic Nervous System: system: (SNS) is one of the threeparts of the autonomic nervous system, along with the enteric andparasympathetic systems. Its general action is to mobilize the body'sresources under stress; to induce the fight-or-flight response. It is, however,constantly active at a basal level in order to maintain homeostasis.

This procedure is done to help relieve post-traumatic painsyndrome and to restore normal blood supply to the arms. Byremoving the sympathetic nerves in the upper back, it stops thespasms in the blood vessels that may cause partial obstruction.

Lumber Sympathectomy is the removal of a section of the sympatheticnerves in the lumbar region. These are located near the spinal column in thelower back. These sympathetic nerves control contraction and expansion ofsmall arteries in the legs.

Some people experience excessive sweating of the feet andpalms. Occasionally, ‘Endoscopic Thoracic Sympathectomy’(sympathetic nerves at the thoracic spine) is done for this issue.If foot sweating does not stop then Lumbar Sympathectomymay be considered. This procedure is done to restore normal blood flow to the legs.The removal of the sympathetic nerves at the lumbar area stopsthe spasms in the blood vessels which can cause partialobstruction and severe pain. It can also be done for non-healing ulcers in the legs or feet.

A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usuallyconnects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendonsare similar to ligaments and fascia as they are all made of collagen exceptthat ligaments join one bone to another bone, and fascia connect muscles toother muscles. Tendons and muscles work together and can exert a pullingforce.

Tendon repair will restore normal function of the joints or tissuesurrounding the tendons.

Thyroidectomy is the removal of all or part of the thyroid gland. The thyroidgland lies just below the Adam’s apple (in the neck). It controls the body’smetabolism. Surgeons often perform a thyroidectomy when a patient has thyroid canceror some other condition of the thyroid gland (such as hyperthyroidism). Otherindications for surgery include cosmetic (very enlarged thyroid), orsymptomatic obstruction (causing difficulties in swallowing or breathing).

Thyroid tumours – benign or malignant (cancerous) Patients are at a higher risk for this surgery if there is untreatedhyperthyroidism. Cysts – Thyroglossal (thyroglossal duct)Hyperthyroidism (usually in children and pregnant women)

The removal of tissue from the mouth area (oral cavity). The parts of the body involved are the tongue, gums, roof of the mouth,cheeks, and salivary glands under the tongue.

To determine if unusual lesions in the mouth are cancerous.During surgery or after – laboratory examination (pathology) willaid in the diagnosis of the removed tissue.

A tonsillectomy is a 2,000 year-old surgical procedure in which the tonsilsare removed from either side of the throat. Adenoidectomy is the surgical removal of the adenoids.

Tonsillectomy: The procedure is performed in response tocases of repeated occurrence of acute tonsillitis or adenoiditis,obstructive sleep apnea, nasal airway obstruction, snoring, orperitonsillar abscess. Sometimes the adenoids are removed atthe same time, a procedure called adenoidectomy. Althoughtonsillectomy is being performed less frequently than in the1950s, it remains one of the most common surgical proceduresin children in Canada and the United States. Adenoidectomy: They may be removed for several reasons,including impaired breathing through the nose and chronicinfections or earaches.

A dental extraction (also referred to as exodontia) is the removal of a toothfrom the mouth. There is some increased surgical risk if a person has had chronic diseasesuch as rheumatic fever (including rheumatic heart disease), heart diseaseor blood disease. Some patients may need antibiotic treatment to preventinfection from becoming systemic.

Tooth removal may be done for the following reasons:- Infection in the nerve of the tooth- Pain when closing the jaws- Lack of space for normal tooth growth - To assist in periodontal tooth alignment-A fractured tooth that cannot be repaired- Infection / pain around wisdom teeth-Loss of supporting gum tissue or bone

A tooth can be replanted (replaced in the same spot) if the tooth is knockedout of its normal position. To accomplish a good result the tooth should bereplanted within 2 hours after the injury (the sooner the better chance ofsuccess). Tooth replantation can only be done if the tooth is found.The risk of the surgery being unsuccessful will increase with poor dentalhygiene and gingivitis (gum disease). In addition, if the replantation isdelayed, the success rate is reduced.

Replanting a tooth prevents the permanent loss of a naturaltooth.

The third molar (the wisdom tooth) is used to replace a diseased or injuredfirst or second molar. It is possible to transplant a tooth from two unrelatedpeople.

Allows for normal tooth function.

Tracheostomy is a surgical procedure on the front of the neck to open adirect airway through an incision in the trachea (the windpipe). It may betemporary or permanent. The opening is made to bypass any obstructionsthat are preventing air getting to the lungs. There are increased surgical risks for newborns or infants and patients withrecent or current respiratory infection. (In addition to the risks indicated in thegeneral file).

To restore normal breathing To create an airway for patients on breathing assistance suchas a respirator To control secretions from the nose and throat for unconsciouspatients

Tracheotomy and tracheostomy are surgical procedures on the neck to opena direct airway through an incision in the trachea (the windpipe). This openingwill function as an airway. It may be temporary or permanent. The opening ismade to bypass any obstructions that are preventing air getting to the lungs.

Acute setting - maxillofacial injuries, large tumours of the headand neck, congenital tumours, acute inflammation of head andneck. Chronic / elective setting - when there is need for long termmechanical ventilation, comatose patients, surgery to the headand neck.

Resection, in surgery, refers to removal of an organ or lesion by cutting itaway from the body or the remainder of the tissue. Males have a prostate gland that is the size of a small ‘clementine’ or a‘walnut’. It surrounds the urethra (which is the tube that drains the urine fromthe bladder to the outside of the body). Many men’s prostate becomes largeraround or before the age of 50 years. When it becomes very much larger, itmakes the passage of urine more difficult since it ‘squeezes’ the urethra. Ifthe urine cannot pass it will back up to the bladder and then to the kidneys.

A TURP (Transurethral Resection of the Prostate) is done toremove the blockage caused by the enlarging prostate.

Males have a prostate gland that is the size of a small ‘clementine’ or a‘walnut’. It surrounds the urethra (which is the tube that drains the urine fromthe bladder to the outside of the body). Many men’s prostate becomes largeraround or before the age of 50 years. When it becomes very much larger, itmakes the passage of urine more difficult since it ‘squeezes’ the urethra. Ifthe urine cannot pass it will back up to the bladder and then to the kidneys. Resection, in surgery, refers to removal of an organ or lesion by cutting itaway from the body or the remainder of the tissue.

A TURP (Transurethral Resection of the Prostate) is done toremove the blockage caused by the enlarging prostate.

Tubal ligation (informally known as getting one's "tubes tied") is a form offemale sterilization, in which the fallopian tubes are severed and sealed or"pinched shut", in order to prevent fertilization that results in pregnancy.

A method of birth control – preventing unwanted pregnancies Voluntary sterilization should be considered final – since it islikely irreversible. Patients should be counselled accordinglyprior to committing to go through this surgery.

Tympanoplasty is reconstructive surgery for the tympanic membrane, oreardrum. Obstruction or defect in the middle ear may prevent sound waves fromreaching the middle ear. This type of conductive hearing loss may be total orpartial. Chronic infections of the middle ear are often the cause ofobstructions to sound waves. Trauma, causing rupture of the eardrum isanother cause.

Tympanoplasty is done to improve or restore hearing ability.

Ureterolithotomy is the removal of kidney stone(s) from the ureter. This isonly done if the stone is too large to remove by other means (such asCystoscopy, ultrasound, or other mechanical devices to break up the stonesinto tiny pieces).

The removal of a kidney stone will restore normal urine flow inthe ureter. Obstruction of the ureter by the kidney stones causesa renal colic attack which is why intense pain is felt in groin andback.

A urethral caruncle is a benign cutaneous (skin) condition characterized bydistal (at the opening) urethral lesions that are most commonly found inpostmenopausal females. Urethral caruncles are frequently associated withfragile genital area skin in elderly patients. They can become a source ofchronic hematuria, infection, and urethritis. This procedure – Urethral Caruncle Removal is the removal of one of thesebenign lesions (tumours / masses). Although not cancerous, an oncologistmay be the physician who makes the diagnosis.

To treat the pain and bleeding associated with a urethralcaruncle.

A vagotomy is a surgical procedure in humans and animals that involvesresection (removal of, or at least severing) of part of the vagus nerve. Thevagus nerve is the CN X (cranial nerve 10) and serves many organs (heart,skeletal muscles, colon, stomach, and much more) There is a vagus nerve in the stomach area. To decrease the production ofacid in the stomach, the vagus nerve branches can be severed.

This surgery is normally done prior to other gastrointestinalsurgeries to minimize the amount of stomach acid.Disconnection of branches of the vagus nerve can treat somecomplications of peptic ulcers. Some of these complicationsare: perforation of the ulcer; bleeding ulcers; uncontrollableabdominal pain.

Varicocelectomy is the removal of the varicocele (the swelling caused by thedilated veins). Varicocele is an abnormal enlargement of the vein that is in the scrotumdraining the testicles. The testicular blood vessels originate in the abdomenand course down through the inguinal canal as part of the spermatic cord ontheir way to the testis. Upward flow of blood in the veins is ensured by smallone-way valves that prevent backflow. Defective valves, or compression ofthe vein by a nearby structure, can cause dilatation of the veins near thetestis, leading to the formation of a varicocele.

This procedure is done to treat (or relieve)...-Discomfort in the scrotum- Improve sperm production (quantity and quality)

Varicose veins are veins that have become enlarged and tortuous. The termcommonly refers to the veins on the leg, although varicose veins can occurelsewhere. Veins have leaflet valves to prevent blood from flowingbackwards (retrograde). Leg muscles pump the veins to return blood to theheart, against the effects of gravity. When veins become varicose, theleaflets of the valves no longer meet properly, and the valves do not work.This allows blood to flow backwards and they enlarge even more. Varicoseveins are most common in the superficial veins of the legs, which are subjectto high pressure when standing.

The procedure improves blood circulation to the legs and feetand will likely relieve painful symptoms.

Sclerotherapy is a procedure used to treat blood vessels or blood vesselmalformations (vascular malformations) and also those of the lymphaticsystem. A medicine is injected into the vessels, which makes them shrink. Itis used for children and young adults with vascular or lymphaticmalformations. In adults, sclerotherapy is often used to treat varicose veinsand hemorrhoids. These veins will no longer carry blood. Varicosities usually are worse in thelegs – the backs of the calves and on the backs of the thighs.

Varicose veins can be itchy and painful – with aching, fatigueand swelling in the feet. Varicose Vein Sclerotherapy may beused after regular varicose vein removal surgery. It may also bedone to prevent the development of larger, more tortuousvaricosities. This procedure can also be considered cosmetic inthat it improves the appearance of the legs.

Vasectomy is a minor surgical procedure wherein the vas deferens of a manare severed, and then tied / sealed in a manner that prevents sperm fromentering the seminal stream (ejaculate). This is a safe method of preventingpregnancy (a method of birth control that doesn’t change the ability toperform sexually).

Sterilization by choice

This procedure is required to repair the abnormal pathway or tract. Vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) - a subtype of female urogenital fistula (UGF) - isan abnormal tract that runs between the bladder and the vagina. This can becaused by tearing during childbirth. Rarely, it can be a complication causedby cervical cancer.

Vesicovaginal fistula repair is done to...- Control urinary flow from the bladder- Prevent urinary tract infection and vaginal infections.

This procedure is required to repair the abnormal pathway or tract. Vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) - a subtype of female urogenital fistula (UGF) - isan abnormal tract that runs between the bladder and the vagina. This can becaused by tearing during childbirth. Rarely, it can be a complication causedby cervical cancer.

Vesicovaginal fistula repair is done to...-Control urinary flow from the bladder-Prevent urinary tract infection and vaginal infections.

If the jelly-like fluid in the eyeball has become clouded, it will block light fromreaching the retina. This will cause loss of vision. Removal of the cloudedfluid from the eyeball resolves this. A chemical solution is injected into theeyeball to replace the removed fluid.

Prevent more vision loss that may result from diseases thatblock light from reaching the retina (such as diabetes mellitus;glaucoma; cataract surgery complications; trauma or injury orinfection inside the eyeball. Restore normal vision