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155 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
Culture:
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the knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment
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Socioeconomic status (SES):
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relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, and prestige
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Resistance culture:
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group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture
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Tracking:
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assignment to different classes and academic experiences based on achievement
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Immigrants:
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people who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place
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Refugees:
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a special group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily. But who are fleeing their home country because it’s not safe
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Melting pot:
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a metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream of society so that ethnic differences vanish
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Cultural deficit model:
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a model that explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming their culture is inadequate and does not prepare them to succeed in school
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Ethnicity:
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a cultural heritage shared by a group of people
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Race:
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a socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry
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Minority group:
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a group of people who have been socially disadvantaged—not always related to actual numbers
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Prejudice:
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prejudgment or irrational generalization about an entire category of people
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Stereotype:
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schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category; often has a negative connotation
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Discrimination:
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treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people
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Stereotype threat:
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the extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm an assumption that others hold about you
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Gender biases:
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different views of males and female, often favoring one over the other
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Multicultural education:
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education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students
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Content integration:
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using examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in their subject area or discipline
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An equity pedagogy:
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matching teaching styles to students’ learning styles in order to facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, and social class groups
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An empowering school culture and social structure:
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examining group and labeling practices, sports participation, and the interaction of the staff and the students across ethnic and racial lines to create a school culture that empowers students from all groups
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Prejudice reduction:
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identifying the characteristics of students’ racial attitudes and determining how they can be modified by teaching
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Culturally relevant pedagogy:
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excellent teaching for students of color that includes academic success, developing/maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo
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Resilience:
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the ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to development
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Academic self-efficacy:
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a belief in your own ability to learn; one of the most consistent predictors of academic achievement
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Behavioral self-control:
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student self-regulation; essential for safe and orderly learning environment
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Academic self-determination:
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includes making choices, setting goals, and following through; the third element of self-agency strand
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Sociolinguistics:
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the study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how to speak in conversations within cultural groups
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Pragmatics:
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the rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture
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Participation structures:
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the formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity
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Learning:
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process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior
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Behavioral learning theories:
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explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors
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Contiguity:
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association of two events because of repeated pairing
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Stimulus:
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event that activates behavior
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Response:
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observable reaction to a stimulus
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Classical conditioning:
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association of automatic responses with new stimuli
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Respondents:
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responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli
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Neutral stimulus:
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event that activates behavior that is not connected to a response
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Unconditioned stimulus (US):
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stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response
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Unconditioned response (UR):
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naturally occurring emotional or physiological response
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
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stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning
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Conditioned Response (CR):
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learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
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Operants:
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voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal
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Operant conditioning:
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learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents
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Antecedents:
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events that precede an action
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Consequences:
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events that follow an action
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Reinforcement:
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use of consequences to strengthen behavior
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Reinforcer:
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any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again
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Positive reinforcement:
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strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior
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Negative reinforcement:
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strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs
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Aversive:
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irritating or unpleasant
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Punishment:
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process that weakens or suppresses behavior
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Presentation punishment:
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decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior; also called Type I punishment
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Removal punishment:
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decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior; also called Type II punishment
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Continuous reinforcement schedule:
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presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response
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Intermittent reinforcement schedule:
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presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses
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Interval schedule:
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length of time between reinforcers
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Ratio schedule:
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reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers
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Extinction:
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the disappearance of a learned response
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Stimulus control:
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capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors
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Effective instruction delivery:
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instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions
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Cueing:
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provide a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior
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Prompt:
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a reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person reacts to the cue
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Applied behavior analysis:
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the application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior
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Behavior modification:
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systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior
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Premack principle:
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Principle stating that more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity—Grandma’s Rule
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Differential reinforcement:
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ignoring inappropriate behaviors
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Shaping:
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reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior
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Successive approximations:
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small components that make up a complex behavior
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Also known as shaping
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Task analysis:
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system for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills
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Positive practice:
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practicing correct responses immediately after errors
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Good behavior game:
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arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior
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Group consequences:
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rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct
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Contingency contract:
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a contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege
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Token reinforcement system:
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system in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward
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Functional behavior assessment (FBA):
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procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior
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Positive behavior supports (PBS):
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interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student
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Precorrection:
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a tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student’s misbehavior, clearly identifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and providing powerful reinforcers
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Social learning theory:
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theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others
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Social cognitive theory:
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theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory
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Observational learning:
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also known as vicarious learning- learning by seeing and imitating others
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Enactive learning:
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learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions; consequences provide information rather than strengthening or weakening the behavior
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Vicarious reinforcement:
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increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior
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Self-reinforcement:
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controlling your own reinforcers
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Self-management:
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use of behavioral learning principles to change you own behavior—goal setting, monitoring and evaluating progress, and self-reinforcement
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Cognitive view of learning:
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a general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge
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Domain-specific knowledge:
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Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic
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General knowledge:
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Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations
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Information processing:
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The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information
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Sensory memory:
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System that holds sensory information very briefly
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Perception:
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Interpretation of sensory information
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Bottom-up processing:
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Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern
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Gestalt:
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German for pattern or whole; Theorists who hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes; principles of proximity, principle of similarity, principle of good continuation, principle of closure, principle of common fate
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Prototype:
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A best example or best representative of a category
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Attention:
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focus on a stimulus
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Automaticity:
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the ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort
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Working memory:
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The information that you are focusing on at a given moment is held here
Made up of three components |
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Short-term memory:
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component of memory system that holds information for about 2 seconds
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Central executive:
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the part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources
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Phonological loop:
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part of working memory; it is a memory rehearsal system for verbal and sound information of about 1.5 to 2 seconds
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Visuospatial sketchpad:
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part of working memory that is a holding system for visual and spatial information
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Cognitive load:
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the volume of resources necessary to complete a task
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Intrinsic cognitive load:
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the resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli
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Extraneous cognitive load:
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the resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task
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Germane cognitive load:
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deep processing of information related to the task, including the application of prior knowledge to a new task or problem
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Maintenance rehearsal:
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Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself
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Elaborative rehearsal:
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Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know
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Chunking:
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grouping individual bits of data into meaningful large units
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Decay:
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The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time
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Long-term memory:
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permanent store of knowledge
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Declarative knowledge:
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verbal information; facts; “knowing that” something is the case
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Procedural knowledge:
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knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; “knowing how”
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Self-regulatory knowledge:
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Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge
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Explicit memory:
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long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall
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Implicit memory:
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knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but influences behavior or thought without our awareness
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Semantic memory:
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memory for meaning
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Propositional network:
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set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held
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Images:
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representations based on the physical attributes—the appearance—of information
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Concept:
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a category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people
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Defining attribute:
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qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept
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Prototype:
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a best example or best representative of a category
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Exemplar:
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an actual memory of a specific object
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Schemas:
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Basic structures for organizing information; concepts
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Story grammar:
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typical structure or organization for a category of stories
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Episodic memory:
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long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially the memory of the events of a person’s life
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Flashbulb memory:
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clear, vivid memory of an emotionally important event in your life
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Procedural memory:
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long-term memory for how to do things
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Script:
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schema or expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza
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Productions:
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the contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions
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Priming:
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activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another
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Elaboration:
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adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge
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Organization:
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ordered and logical network of relations
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Context:
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The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event
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Levels of processing theory:
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Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed
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Spreading activation:
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retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another; remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information
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Retrieval:
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process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory
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Reconstruction:
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recreating information by using memories, expectations, and existing knowledge
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Interference:
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the process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information
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Dual coding:
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First idea of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning: visual and verbal materials are processed in different systems
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Limited Capacity:
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Second idea of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning: Working memory for verbal and visual material is severely limited. Cognitive load has to be managed
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Generative learning:
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Third idea of Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning: Meaningful learning happens when students focus on relevant information and build connections
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Mnemonics:
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techniques for remembering; the art of memory
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Loci method:
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techniques of associating items with specific places
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Acronym:
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technique for remembering but using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word
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Chain mnemonics:
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memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element
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Keyword method:
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system of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images (recode, relate, retrieve)
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Rote memorization:
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remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information
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Serial-position effect:
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the tendency to remember the beginning and the end but not the middle of the list
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Part learning:
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breaking a list of items into shorter lists
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Distributed practice:
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practice in brief periods with rest intervals
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Massed practice:
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practice for a single extended period
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Automated basic skills:
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skills that are applied without conscious thought
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Domain-specific strategies:
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consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem
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Executive control process:
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processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory
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Metacognition:
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knowledge about our own thinking process; includes declarative, procedural, and self-regulatory knowledge
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The knowledge constructions process:
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helping students to understand how the implicit cultural assumptions within a discipline influence the ways that knowledge is constructed within it
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