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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the three types of blood vessels |
- Arteries - Veins - Capillaries
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What are the three layers of a blood vessel |
- Tunica Externa - Tunica Media - Tunica Intima |
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What is the lumen of the blood vessel |
The inside space of the vessel that blood flow through |
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Which vessel has a smaller lumen and why |
The arteries have smaller lumens due to the high pressure needed to transport the blood to the entire body |
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Which vessel is more likely to collapse |
Veins are more likely to collapse because they have a thinner tunica media |
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What is the purpose of the venous valves |
To prevent back flow of blood as its being transported back to the heart. |
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What are the three types of arteries |
- Elastic - Muscular - Arterioles |
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Which vessel has more elastic and collagen fibers and why |
Arteries have more elastic and collagen because they contract and relax while transporting blood |
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TRUE OR FALSE Veins affect blood pressure |
FALSE, veins do not affect blood pressure because they do not contract and relax. |
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What are the different types of capillaries. What is their degree of permeability |
- Continuous: most common, least permeable - Fenestrated: slightly more permeable - Sinusoid: most permeable |
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Where are the 3 types of arteries found |
Aorta is an elastic artery Femoral artery is a muscular artery Arterioles are found between muscular arteries and capillaries |
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What is the function of capillaries |
Capillaries allow for the exchange of substances between blood and body tissues. Oxygen and nutrients go in and waste comes out, by way of diffusion or between intercellular clefts or through fenestrations |
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Where are the 3 types of capillary beds found |
Continuous capillary beds are found in the skin and muscle Fenestrated capillary beds are found in the kidneys and small intestine Sinusoidal capillary beds are found in the spleen and liver. These beds allow RBCs to pass through |
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What is the function of "true" capillaries |
They branch from the metarteriole and make up the bulk of the capillary bed. |
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What is a metarteriole |
This is the vessel branch from and arteriole that starts the thoroughfare channel of the capillary bed, leading to the post-capillary venule, which drains the bed. |
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What is a reason that precapillary sphincters contract |
These sphincters shunt the blood when the body gets cold and responds to forcing all blood to the body core to maintain function temperature around vital organs. |
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TRUE OR FALSE The systemic circulation system contains the largest percentage of blood, with about 55-60% of it in the systemic arteries |
FALSE, while the system circulation system does contain the largest percentage of blood, that blood is stored in the venous system and not the arteries. |
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What are varicose veins and what is the cause |
Leaky venous valves cause varicose veins, which are twisted, dilated (swollen) superficial veins. Standing/walking hard floors create them in the calves |
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What are anastomoses and where is one located |
Anastomoses are alternative blood pathways, the joining of blood vessels to supply the same body region. The circle of Willis is an anatomosis found in the brain. The coronary circulation of the heart is another |
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What is arteriosclerosis and where is it commonly found |
The thickening and stiffening of artery walls due to the buildup of fatty plaques, found in the aorta and coronary/carotid arteries |
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What are some of the common risk factors of ateriosclerosis |
High cholesterol, Smoking, diabetes, family history |
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What are the two significant sources of cholestrol |
Animal fat and the human liver production of cholestrol |
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What are the 2 types of cholesterol and their charactersitics |
HDL: high-density cholesterol, considered "good" LDL: low-density cholesterol, considered "bad" |
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How are HDL and LDL "packaged" |
HDL and LDL are packaged as lipoproteins LDL transports from the liver to tissues HDL transports from tissues to liver |
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What is the drug treatment for high cholesterol and what is its function |
Statins are the drug treatment and they block cholesterol production but do not remove the existing plaque buildup |
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Which foods are considered good for cholesterol |
Avocados, nuts, and olive oil |
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What is considered a good total cholesterol count |
Cholesterol under 200 mg/dl is considered good for adults LDL under 130 mg/dl and HDL over 40mg/dl |
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What factors influence blood flow |
Blood pressure and resistance influence blood flow |
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How does blood pressure influence blood flow |
Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to lower pressures |
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How is blood pressure influenced by resistance |
Resistance increases blood pressure |
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What factors influence the increase in resistance |
Increase of blood viscosity (high level of erythrocytes Increase of vessel length (result of weight gain) Decrease in lumen diameter (Increase in vasoconstriction |
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What is blood pressure |
the force per unit area that blood exerts against the inside wall of a vesssel |
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Where is blood pressure greatest and least |
BP is greatest in the aorta and least in the vena cava |
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TRUE OR FALSE Blood flow is not proportional to difference in BP between two locations |
FALSE, blood flow is proportional to the difference in BP between two locations It is also inversely proportional to resistance |
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What is the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure |
Systolic pressure is the highest pressure generated during ventricular systole when the artery is maximally stretched Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure during ventricular diastole when the artery recoils no further |
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How is arterial pressure expressed and what is considered an average pressure |
Arterial pressure is expressed as a ratio, systolic over diastolic, an average pressure is 120/80 |
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How is diastolic pressure generated |
Diastolic pressure is the residual pressure stored in elastic arteries from systole and then used in diastole to produce a constant flow |
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What is pulse pressure, how is it calculated |
Pulse pressure is the additonal pressure placed on the arteries from when the heart is resting (diastolic BP) to when the heart is contracting (systolic BP) Pulse pressure is calculated by taking the difference between systolic and diastolic BP 120/80 BP = PP of 40 120-80=40 |
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What is the significance of Pulse Pressure |
Pulse Pressure is the measure of the elasticity and recoil of arteries, the higher the PP the stiffer the vessels (arteriosclerosis) |
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What is the Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP), how is it calculated |
MAP is the average measure of the BP forces on the arteries MAP = diastolic BP + 1/3 PP BP = 120/80 MAP = 80 + 40/3 = 93 MAP indicates how well body tissues and organs are receiving blood |
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What are the 3 venous return mechanisms |
Skeletal muscle pump- within limbs Respiratory pump- within thoracic cavity- diaphragm Venous valves- within the veins, prevent back flow |
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Define resistance |
amount of friction the blood experiences as it is transported through the blood vessels blood flow is always opposed by resistance, due to the contact between blood and the blood vessel wall |
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TRUE OR FALSE The thicker the fluid, the more viscous it is, and the greater its resistance to flow |
TRUE, if a person is dehydrated or has a high level of formed elements, their blood will be more viscous and have a greater resistance to flow |
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Which disease has a serious effect on resistance, why |
atherosclerosis is the process of plaque narrowing the lumen of blood vessels, which increases the resistance as blood moves through vessels
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What are baroreceptors and where are they located |
Baroreceptors are specialized sensory nerve endings that respond to stretch. They detect stretch of the blood vessel wall as blood volume changes. They are located in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses (specifically the tunica externa) |
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Which two cranial nerves can be innervated due to BP levels |
Vagus- aortic reflex Glossophayngeal- carotid sinus reflex Low BP - baroreceptors decreases frequency of nerve signals High BP - barorecpetors increase frequency of nerve signals |
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Which hormones participate in BP regulation |
Epinephrine/norepinephrine Angiotensin II, Antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, atrial natriuretic peptide. |
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Explain the renin-angiotensin system |
The liver produces angiotensinogen, Renin is released by the kidneys, in response to low BP or stimulation by the sympathetic system. Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, which is then converted to angiotensin II, which stimulates the secretion of aldosterone. This increases BP |
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How does aldosterone help maintain BP |
Increases the absorption of sodium and water in the kidneys, decreasing their loss in urine |
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How does antidiuretic hormone help maintain BP |
Increases the absorption of water in the kidneys, decreasing its loss in urine In extreme cases, such as hemorrhaging, extensive release of ADH occurs, causing which increases peripheral resistance and BP. |
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How does Atrial natriuretic peptide maintain BP |
ANP is released from the heart, in response to an increase in stretch of atrial walls, due to increased blood volume and increased venous return. ANP stimulates vasodilation, decreasing peripheral resistance, and increases urine output, decreasing blood volume. AND is an antagonist of aldosterone = lower BP |
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What is syncope |
Syncope is a non traumatic fainting spell |
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What is the cause of vasovagal syncope |
lack of blood flow to the brain; results in slow heart beat |
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What is the cause of cardiogenic syncope |
The SA node is not properly working |
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TRUE OR FALSE Dehydration can cause orthostatic syncope |
TRUE, dehydration can cause dizziness which can result in fainting; a fast heart beat |
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What is shock |
an inadequate cardiac output resulting in the inability to deliver adequate amounts of oxygen and nutrients to meet metabolic needs of the body |
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What are the various types of shock |
Hypovolemic- not enough fluid in the tank, venous return low, massive blood loss Cardiogenic- poor cardiac output, massive heart attack, least likely to improve Vascular- sepsis, illness, secondary cause from infection/illness |
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How is hypertension treated |
Decrease sodium intake- decreases venous return to heart Decrease stress- meditation initiates parasympathetic system Weight loss- decreases resistance, reduces vessel length |
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What are the prescription drugs used to treat hypertension |
Diuretics- increasing urination; loss of fluids lower the BP Vasodiolators- decreases resistance Both scripts cause erectile dysfunction |
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What are the two classifications of hypertension, and what are the causes |
Primary hypertension- cause is unknown Secondary hypertension- increased secretion of aldosterone, due to a tumor of adrenal gland, plaque buildup in renal arteries causes low blood flow, or hypersecretion of epinephrine/norepinephrine due to tumor |
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What is the function of the lymphatic system |
Fluid transport- lymph, similar to interstitial fluid Facilitate immune response- lymphocyte maturation Drainage- returns excess interstitial fluid back to heart |
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What are the various lymphatic structures |
Primary- Thymus & red bone marrow; formation and maturation of lymphocytes Secondary- spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, MALT (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue, payer's patches); house lymphocytes and other immune cells, immune response is initiated |
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How does interstitial fluid become lymph |
Interstitial fluid drains into lymphatic capillaries in the tissue spaces between cells |
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Which vein(s) does the lymph drain into |
Lymph from the right lymphatic duct drains into the right subclavian vein Lymph from the thoracic duct drains into the left subclavian vein |
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What makes lymphatic capillaries highly permeable |
Adjacent cells overlap forming minivalves Anchored by collagen filaments preventing collapse |
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What type of tissue are lymphatic tissues made of |
Reticular-loose connective tissue |
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What type of cells make up lymphatic system |
Lymphocytes (T&B cells) Plasma cells Macrophages Dendritic cells Reticular cells |
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What is the function of lymph nodules |
proliferation of lymphocytes |
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TRUE OR FALSE Infected lymph nodes are firm and tender |
FALSE, infected lymph nodes are not firm, yet tender. cancerous nodes are firm and not tender. |
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Describe lymphoma |
Cancer of B lymphocytes, nontender, enlarged lymph node, often in neck or axillary region Two categories: Hodgkin lymphoma- Reed-Sternberg cell affecting young adults (16-35) and people over 60. If caught early it is treatable Non-Hodgkin lymphoma- much more common, some are aggressive and fatal, other slow-growing and responsive to treatment. |
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Describe lymphodema |
Elephantitis; accumulation of interstitial fluid occurring due to the interference with lymph drainage in part of the body, pain and swelling occurs. caused by blockage;scar tissue/trauma |
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Describe Adenopathy |
Enlarged and tender lymph nodes, caused by infection, strep throat |
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Where are payer's patches found |
Ileum of the small intestine, they defend against foreign materials that come in contact with mucosal membranes within the digestive system |
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What is the function of the spleen |
As the largest lymphatic organ, the spleen serves as a blood reservoir, specifically the red pulp, and also a filter for blood, phagocytosis of bacteria, and old, defective erythrocytes and platelets. |
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What is the function of the tonsils |
Protecting against foreign materials that may be inhaled or ingested. Tonsils trap materials in "crypts" or invaginated outer edges, increasing surface area |
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What are the two components of the immune system |
Innate(nonspecific) defense Adaptive (specific) defense |
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What is the function of the immune system |
To initiate defense mechanisms (innate & adaptive) to resist intrusion of foreign matter that enters the body |
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Describe innate immunity |
local & nonspecific, wards off pathogens nose hairs and mucous membranes acidic juice of stomach acidic secretion of vagina urine flow prevents bacteria growth skin is an impervious barrier |
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What are the two lines of defense that make up innate immunity |
1st line- barriers: skin & mucous membranes chemicals: gastric juices, sweat, sebum 2nd line- phagocytes: macrophages, dendritic interferons: complex protein antiviral compound, limit/inhibits infection Natural Killer cells- attack tumors Complement Pathway- |
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Describe the Complement Pathway |
These proteins enhance certain immune, allergic, and inflammatory reactions by: Coating pathogen surfaces, enhancing phagocytosis Enhancing inflammation, histamine release, increases blood vessel permeability and attracts phagocytes by chemotaxis Poking holes and lysis (exploding) |
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What is chemotaxis |
Chemical secretion that attracts macrophages and neutrophils, facilitates in phagocytosis |
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What are phagocytes |
Cells that consume foreign matter, "eat" bacteria, viruses, and dead or injured body cells alveolar macrophages (lungs) dendritic cells (skin) microglia (brain) macrophages (spleen, red marrow, and lymph nodes) |
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What are Natural Killers |
cells that kill a variety of viruses and tumor cells found in blood, spleen, lymph nodes, and red marrow attack cells displaying abnormal MHC antigens |
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What are the three stages of inflammation |
Vasodiolation & increased permeability of vessels -caused by histamine Phagocyte emigration Tissue repair Process is to trap microbes, toxins, or foreign material & begin tissue repair |
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What is an abscess |
Accumulation of pus in a confined space not open to the outside- pimples & boils Ulcer walled off infection |
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What are the benefits of a fever |
Intensifies effects of interferons, inhibits bacterial growth, speeds up tissue repair |
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Describe adaptive immunity |
Systemic- goes out into the lymph organs in search of specific antigens Specific- specific lymphocytes for specific antigens Memory- vaccines and booster shots, in reserve for later battle |
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What are the two types of adaptive immunity |
Humeral: liquid- blood, lymph, interstitial fluid any abnormal antigens in fluid, B-cells Cell mediated: specific antigens, bacteria/tumors presented to the T-cells (prima donnas) |
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Where do T-cells and B-cells mature |
T-cells in the thymus B-cells in the red bone marrow |
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What are antibodies |
Protective proteins (immunogolbulins) released by plasma cells that bind to a specific antigen |
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What are antigens |
Anything that causes a reaction within the immune system microbes, bacterial toxins, pollen, transplanted organs, incompatible blood cells |
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TRUE OR FALSE
Type 1 MHCs are antigen producing cells Type 2 MHCs are all cells |
FALSE, type 1 are human cell bodies type 2 are antigen producing cells |
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What are cytokines |
small, soluble proteins that regulate and facilitate immune system activity |
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How do Natural Killer cells work
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Perforin insert into antigen, form pores, enzymes enter the pores and antigen degrade
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Which chromosome is involved with the development of MHCs
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Chromosome 6
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What is considered ACTIVE immunity and PASSIVE immunity
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ACTIVE - vaccines and immunizations, flu shot infection/illness exposure PASSIVE - breastfeeding |
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What are APCs |
Antigen Presenting Cells macrophages dendrites B lymphocytes cells that "gobble up" antigens and present them to T-cells to be destroyed |
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What qualifies something to be an antigen
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When it stimulates the immune system to react toxins, infections, tumors, organ transplants |
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Where does immunocompetence take place
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B-cells become immunocompetent in the red bone marrow T-cells become immunocompetent in the thymus |
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What does immunocompetence mean
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When B & T cells experience the + & - selection they are able to identify the body's own MHCs as well as not reacting to the body's own antigens |
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What are plasma cells
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Plasma cells (effector cells) release antibodies and cytokines that facilitate in the defense against antigens
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What is the difference between CD4 and CD8 cells
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CD4 (helper cells) facilitate in the destruction of antigens CD8 (cytotoxic cells) kill antigens |
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What are memory cells
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cells that live in the body, awaiting the arrival of specific anitgens
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