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292 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ancient Greek, Pythagoras
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Number will explain everything. Connecting physical events (tones) to psychological events (pleasure). Mind - body dualism. More in the mind and ideas, sense & flash are inferior
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Ancient Greek, Plato
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Socratic method (digging deep into ideas) combined with Pythagorean mysticism. Real objects are just a poor representations of pure forms & ideas, hence true knowledge can only obtained by studying the forms and ignoring sensory experience.
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Plato The Cave
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mathematics cannot explain everything. Like the fire that cast light on the walls of the cave, the human condition is forever bound to the impressions that are received through the senses.
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Ancient Greek, Aristotle
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Founded the Lyceum, the first university, where everything was up for debate. Studying nature, many examples. Rationalist Empiricist, analyse information from the sene to produce knowledge. Explain psychological events based on biology
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West (800BCE), Jaspers
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an axial period where the western started to question ideas instead of just accepting them. New knowledge may change the view
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Dark ages (400s-1300s)
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lot of Greek knowledge was destroyed and lost. Islamic Scholarship preserved lot of the Greek knowledge. Mysticism, don’t dig into things too deeply, trust we don’t have to worry about it, God may fix it
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Dark to middle ages, 1200-1300
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first universities, maybe question things
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Middle Ages (1200s -)
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scholarship starts emerging again, based on Greek studies
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Renaissance (1400s - 1600s)
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intellectual focus turns to human activities. Dogma was no longer unchallenged. The rise of skepticism
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Modern empirical psychology has three foundations
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Theory (deceives from reason). Mathematics / stats. Data (derived from observations)
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Newton
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thought God created the system, but he does not micromanage. The world is guided by laws, hence can be investigated. Rejects Aristotle’s final cause concept. Occam’s razor concept instead - as simple as needed to accommodate for the phenomenon - simple enough, but not too simple. Knowledge isn’t perfect, just getting closer to the phenomenon. Classification / naming things isn’t an explanation just identification
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Francis Bacon (Empiricism)
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Observing events is the most important (died during conducting an experiment). No theories up front, only induction. Science should have public benefits
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Descartes (Rationalism)
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Produce all human knowledge as sure as mathematics, identify the sure foundation of knowing. Rationalism, dominance of logical thought. Interactive dualism, body mind work together. Four rules: Avoid prejudgment, everything is up for debate; Reductionism, divide problems into as many parts as required; Analyse parts, start with simplest, work towards most difficult; No aspects unexamined, be thorough. Certain ideas are so clear that they must be created by God. Humans and animals are similar, opening the idea to animals tests.
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John Locke (Empiricism)
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Everything comes from experience, no innate ideas. Dualist, agreed mind and body interact, but he didn’t care how. An idea is a simple mental image. Humans are motivated by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. What we perceive is what’s actually happening in the world, without distortion. Tabula rasa, (as opposed to Descartes), the blank slate, humans are sponges, we accumulate information throughout life
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David Hume (Empiricism)
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Everything comes from experience, no innate ideas. Moral philosophy / social science, just like physical science. Deduct from observations. Perception is not a mediary between reality and observation. Causality is just a consistent co-occurrence of events. To have causal relationship: Same place and time, Cause before event, Cause always triggers event, Same cause triggers same event. Emotions are consistent drivers for humans. Humans learn by reward / punishment, just like animals
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Immanuel Kant (Synthesis between Empiricism and Rationalism)
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Division between empiricists and rationalists. Categories (causation) are products of the mind. An active mind is required to process the experience and product knowledge. Mind is the center of the universe. Psychology cannot be studied from experiences as self report isn’t accurate, the data might be corrupted
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Charles Darwin
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Tried to find a unifying principle or theory for the variations between species. The type of food and environment creates diversity between species (beak of the birds). Survival of the best fitted (to the environment). The advantageous traits are more likely to be passed on as the individual lives longer with better traits.
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Structuralism
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What is the structure of the mind, used to be European psychological trend. Elements of the human mind, using introspection as the main method of investigation
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Functionalism (Combination of Pragmatism and Evolution)
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What is the practical use of things, used to be US psychological trend. Combination of pragmatism and evolution. How does the function of our minds help us to be better adapted to our environment. What are the individual differences, how can we effectively assist them with tailored programs. Any information source is viable (both surveys, experiments, …)
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Psychodynamic Perspective (Freud) 3 assumptions
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Actions determined by thoughts. Much of mental activity is out of awareness. Mental processes may conflict with each other
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Behaviouristic Perspective
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Only tabula rasa / blank state, no body & mind concept. Nothing is innate in human beings, we start from scratch. Psychology should be exclusively empirical (observation based) science
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Humanistic Perspective
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Uniqueness of the individual
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Cognitive perspective
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How do we perceive, process, retrieve, and utilize the information. Theories are tested with experiments
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Evolutionary perspective
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Human traits exists because these helps us to survive. Studies have to take evolutionary perspective into account
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Motivation
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is the driver of our directed behaviour, particularity our wants and needs
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Biological drives (primary)
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the things we need to survive. Thirst, hunger, oxygen, sleep, temperature, waste elimination, sex
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Social drives (secondary)
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the needs we acquired through social learning, through contact with other people. Achievement, aggression, power, curiosity, play, affiliation, autonomy
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Approach motivation
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that drives us to engage in some behaviour
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Avoidance motivation
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that repels us from some behaviour
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Freud, 3 constructs of psyche
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Id, unconscious (Eros (sex), Thanatos (aggressive / death)); Superego, morally responsible part, outside of awareness, drives for perfection; Ego, the rational mind, between id and superego to make sure our behaviours are socially acceptable
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TAT Thematic Apperception Test
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trying to measure unconscious desires (eg.: explain what’s happening on a photo). Longitudinal study for TAT, more predictive of long term entrepreneurial success than self report
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Drive Reduction Theories
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Thirst, hunger, and sexual frustration drive us to try to resolve them. Resolving them is a rewarding experience. Some drives are more important than others, eg.: thirst > hunger, hunger > sex
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Homeostasis
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the state of equilibrium we try to achieve. Biological need creates a drive which creates a goal directed behaviour, then we satisfy the need and homeostasis is achieved, drive is reduced
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
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Arousal- performance Upside down U shape (Bell). Boredom, low performance. Optimal arousal, best performance. High anxiety (over arousal), low performance. Professional athletes perform better with larger crowds, Amateurs perform better with smaller crowd.
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Stimulus hunger
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caused by under-arousal, a drive for stimulation. Can be satisfied with lot of ways (eg: chatting, fidgeting, …). Can increase curiosity (eg: traveling, trying new foods, …). Can be induced by sensory deprivation (in isolation chamber, no light, no sound)
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Clashing drives Approach-approach conflict
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when faced with two equally attractive drives (concert or dinner with friend)
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Clashing drives Avoidance-avoidance conflict
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when faced with two undesirable outcomes (hating studying, but hating failing the exam too)
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Clashing drives Approach-avoidance conflict
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when faced with a good outcome and potentially undesirable outcome (cute potential date but fear of rejection). Avoidance overtakes approach tendency as we get closer to the goal. Maximum conflict is when approach and avoidance are the same level (agreeing to be wedding MC in 6 months time, approach motivation is high. As time gets closer to the wedding avoidance motivation grows)
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Incentive theories
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are driven by Drive Reduction Theories, as in humans are driven by positive goals, but also adds intrinsic and extrinsic motivation but adds: Intrinsic motivation, internal desire to do something, Extrinsic motivation, external factors, not necessarily our choices.
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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Self-actualisation (sense of purpose), Self-esteem (respect for others, being unique person), Love and belonging (family, connection to people), Safety and security (health, job, social life), Physiological needs (food water)
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Maslow’s hierarchy Criticism
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Studied on well doing men. Some people may not have the basic needs but already self actualised
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Sexual Motivation, Libido
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human sexual desire, drive for sexual activity and pleasure. Driven by Testosterone and DRD4 protein (levels of DRD4 is mostly genetic)
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Goal setting behaviour (SMART)
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Specific (not generic goal), Measurable, Action oriented (not outcome; what needs to be done), Realistic (neither too easy, or too hard), Time based (have a deadline). Getting Goals and Feedback together significantly increases performance, getting only feedback, or only goals does not elevate much compared to baseline
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Eating is mindless
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mostly we don’t have direct control over it
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Energy store long term, short term
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Short term energy storage in glucose, Long term energy storage in fat. Fat cells secrete leptin, the more leptin the less the appetite
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Flavor
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Taste, smell, touch all contribute. During chewing the smell gets back to the nose from the back of the throat
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Sensory specific satiety
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we like the food less and less while eating, which slows the intake. Doesn’t happen when eating different foods at the same time
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Chyme
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semi fluid, nutrient rich content from stomach to small intestine
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Vagus nerve
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Nerves from stomach to brain
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CCK Cholecystokinin
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Small intestine releases after receives the food, hunger suppressant
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Ghrelin
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Stomach releases when empty, stops after food
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dopamine and serotonin on appetite
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Both dopamine and serotonin decreases appetite. Psychological drugs affect neurotransmitters, causes weight gain
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CRH (Corticotropin Releasing Hormone)
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Leptin from fat cells releases CRH (Corticotropin Releasing Hormone) which suppresses appetite
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Hypothalamus regions for eating
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Ventromedial nucleus, stop eating. Lateral hypothalamus, start eating
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Frontal lobe for eating
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impulse control for eating
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Insula cortex for eating
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understands internal state (I’m hungry / I’m full)
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Hippocampus for eating
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forming memories, keep eating if we can’t remember
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Seeing food
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triggers desire, release of insulin, body is preparing to eat. Evolutionary sense but now we can’t escape food sights. Today it’s okay to eat anywhere anytime
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Time and place as cues for eating
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we are habit bound. In isolation (cave) not the time but the size of the last meal dictated eating
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Social eating
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the more people present, the more we eat
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TV eating
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Source of food advertisement. Distraction so internal senses are numbed, we eat more
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Portion size for eating
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we eat more if we are given larger serving. US mean portion sizes are 25% more than French
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Obesity
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is determined by BMI, 30+ (18-25 is normal). Causes Type 2 diabetes, circulatory diseases, cancer, joint damage
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Dieting
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5-10% losing realistic, we want 30% less. More for looks than for health. Most dieting fails, because it requires conscious regulation and it’s too short, 4 weeks instead of the required 20 weeks.
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Binge eating
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losing control over how much we eat. 9-18% of obese people binge eat. No compensation (eg.: vomiting), direct weight gain
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Anorexia Nervosa (AN)
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Extreme restriction in food in stake. 0.5-2% of women. 5-10% mortality. No single cause
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Bulimia Nervosa (BN)
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Very low self esteem, Binge eating with compensation, 1-3% of females
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Starvation
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Lower immune response, Lower IQ in children, Eventually lose interest or care for anything and anyone else, just want to eat
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Learning
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Permanent change in our behaviour potentiality (may not be displayed) that happens after reinforced practice. Motivation is necessary for the learned behaviour to be performed. Cannot be observed directly, has to be inferred from behaviour. Conditioning is learning the association
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NOT learning
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Instincts that are born with us. Reflexes. Any change in behaviour that results from the change of state (eg.: drunk)
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Associative learning
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learning the association between two stimulus (key ring sound causes separation anxiety in dogs). Operant conditioning, Classical conditioning
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Non-associative learning
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responding to a single repeated stimulus. Habituation, response to an event decreases after repeated exposure, (if the intensity is low), Rats hide less and less when only smell is present but can’t see the cat. Sensitisation, response to an event increases after repeated exposure (if the intensity is high or potentially threatening)
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Costs of learning
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Delayed reproductive effect, Longer juvenile vulnerability, Increased parental investment, High energy requirement, human brain uses 20% of energy for it’s 2% of body weight, Fallibility, trial error can be dangerous but instincts protect us
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4 types of learning
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Noticing/ignoring (Sensitisation, Habituation), Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning, Observational learning
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Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
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Learning the association between two stimuli that were unrelated previously. US => UR then (NS + US) => UR then NS becomes CS and UR becomes CR so CS => CR
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Unconditioned stimulus (US)
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that automatically triggers unconditioned response without learning (UR)
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Neutral Stimulus (NS)
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that otherwise triggers no response. NS becomes Conditioned stimulus (CS) after being combined with US and will trigger Conditioned Response (CR)
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Acquisition (learning)
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formation of the learned response
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Extinction (learning)
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elimination of the learned response by removing the unconditioned stimulus (meat) when CS is being presented (bell)
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Spontaneous recovery (learning)
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re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a resting period. Comes back somewhat weaker than original association
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Chemotherapy Conditioned Learning
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Eating specific food (NS) before chemotherapy (US) which causes nausea (UR) will build disgust (CR) for that food (CS)
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Biological Preparedness (learning)
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some things we learn faster (eg.: rats learn about getting sick faster for specific taste)
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Reacquisition (learning)
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after extinction very rapid relearning after presenting CS-US combination again
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Stimulus generalization (learning)
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responding the same manner in similar but not identical stimuli (fear or white fluffy things).
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Conditioning of Little Albert
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Scaring (UR) the child with loud noise (US) when the kid was reaching for a white rat, developed fear for white rabbits and Santa Claus mask too (CR for CS).
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Stimulus discrimination (learning)
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learned ability to respond differently to real CS from the CS lookalikes
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Stimulus similarity (learning)
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the more similar the new stimuli to the original CS the more the CR happens, either direction (eg.: more ripe or less ripe strawberries aren’t better, the exact original ripeness CS is the best evoking the response). Cheaper brands use similar packaging to the well marketed ones to mimic the original CS. Sight of artificial flowers can trigger histamine release in allergic people. Conditioning effect of the immune system, AIS Anticipatory Immune Suppression develops after conditioned learning to chemotherapy not just nausea - eventually going to a hospital was enough to trigger it
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First order conditioning (learning)
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CS triggers CR directly
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Higher order conditioning (learning)
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eg., second-order conditioning, when pairing two NS stimulus together will make the other CS to trigger the CR too. CS1 -> CR (can opener then food), CS2 -> CS1 (squeaky cabinet then can opener), CS2 -> CR (squeaky cabinet then salivation). Strength of the higher order stimulus depends on the similarity of the two CS, and the frequency and consistency of pairing of the two stimuli
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Contiguity theory (learning)
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to develop CR to the NS, the CS and the US has to be close (together) in time. Explains most findings but not all of them
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Contingency theory (learning)
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learning is based on how predictable the US is based on the CS, not just the number of times they appear together. Reliability, how often CS followed by US. Inhibitory conditioning, how reliably US did NOT happen after the stimulus (bell but no food). Uniqueness of the CS, how unfamiliar it is
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Conditioned Response strength development is affected by
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sequence, strength of CS, number of CS-US pairings
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Delay conditioning (learning)
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US happens right after the CS, learning is strongest
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Trace conditioning (learning)
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CS happens much later, memory needs to be involved, not as strong
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Simultaneous conditioning (learning)
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US CS same time, very little conditioning develops
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Backward conditioning(learning)
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if CS happens after US no conditioning develops (CS cannot predict US)
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Opponent process theory
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every pleasant or unpleasant process is followed by an opposite emotion; repeated exposure weakens original emotions, strengthens response emotion. Primary reaction (Stage A) is weakened by repeated exposure (or at least perceived weaker as Stage B offsets it more). Compensatory response, the after-reaction (Stage B) strengthens and starts sooner by repeated exposure (conditioned).
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Opponent process theory, skydiving
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Engaging activities because we like the after reaction, like skydiving (Hedonic Affective Phenomena). Stage A (fear) decreases over time, Stage B (relief) increases with more jumps
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Opponent process theory, Drug addiction
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the net effect of Stage A + Stage B. We need more Stage A (rush) as Stage B (coming down effect) is offsetting it. B starts earlier, lasts longer when addiction develops. Siegel’s theory of drug tolerance, in new context (eg.: new place) the response is much bigger and overdose can occur
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Law of action (Thorndike)
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learning happens based on the consequences of our actions. Reinforcement, punishment, consequences (Skinner), in other words the consequences of the action determines the probability of performing it again
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Operant conditioning Compared to classical conditioning
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with CC the reward is not a result of the behavior (light then food randomly), in operant conditioning behavior triggers reward (push lever after light, food). Classical conditioning, neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned response, Operant conditioning, ABC, Antecedents, Behaviour, Consequences
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Skinner box
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unlike Thorndike, Skinner wanted a process where the animal didn't have to be manually put back to the box; just trigger the machine to get a reward. To understand how we learn we need to observe behaviour, not hypothese it according to Skinner
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Contingency types
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Positive contingency, something added. Negative contingency, something removed (not necessarily bad or punishment, simply removed)
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Stimulus types (operant conditioning)
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Appetitive, pleasant. Aversive, unpleasant
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Types of behaviour-consequence relationships (operant conditioning)
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Appetitive Stimulus + Positive Contingency = Positive Reinforcement (Yum, increased behaviour). Appetitive Stimulus + Negative Contingency = Negative Punishment (Speeding good, losing license bad, decreased behaviour). Aversive Stimulus + Positive Contingency = Positive Punishment (Slapping after being naughty, decreased behaviour). Aversive Stimulus + Negative Contingency = Negative Reinforcement (Relief of pain, avoidance learning, increased behaviour)
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Discriminative stimulus (operant conditioning)
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knowing if we need to respond to get a reward, light comes on, press the lever for food. But when the light is off, no reward
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Shaping (operant conditioning)
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reinforcing behaviour that is closer to what we want to achieve - reward the rat when around the lever, but not pressing it just yet
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Chaining (operant conditioning)
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when multiple serial discriminative stimulus teaches a complex series of evens (rat climbing up then pulling up the ladder to climb further)
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Variables that affect operant conditioning
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Magnitude of reward. Delay of reward. Frequency and consistency of reinforcement (continuous reinforcement)
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Ratio Schedule, Fixed ratio, Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
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press the lever N times then get food. High rate of trying, but short pause after reward
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Ratio schedule, Variable Ratio, Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
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not sure how many attempts the subjects need to make (most resilient to extinction). High rate of trying, no pause after reward
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Interval schedule, Fixed interval, Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
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fixed time between rewards. Low rate of trying, Long pause after reward
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Interval Schedule, Variable interval, Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
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some random time has to pass between rewards. Slower rate of trying, no pause
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Primary reward
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significant biological value (chocolate, good food)
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Secondary reward
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not significant biological value but enjoyable (money)
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Premack principle (Grandma’s rule)
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give reward that they already like for something they don’t like (eat veggies to get cake)
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Punishment effects on learning
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are temporary, does not promote better behaviour. Should have an alternative behaviour at the same time to get a reward, punishment in itself isn’t too motivating. Subjects escape punishment instead of changing behaviour (lie, avoid routes with speed cameras). Hate the person who delivers punishment instead of change behaviour. Punishment should be consistent which is mostly not (infrequently getting caught for speeding). May lead to modeling the punishment (punish the child - child punished the doll). Learned helplessness, when no perceived relationship between behaviour and punishment
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Learned helplessness
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being exposed to inescapable situation (no control over it) will prevent learning later in similar but different situation if the new situation is escapable. Manually helping the learning later can remove this effect. Useful to show the children that they have control over difficult situations instead of isolating them from these situations.
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Latent learning
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reward is not necessary to learn, but necessary to perform: rats learned the layout of the maze even without food - when later food was presented they were at least as good as the group who always had rewards
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Observational (social / vicarious / modeling) learning
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when we observe other models or demonstrators, learning just by being exposed. This is how culture is passed on to next generations (language, dress, cooking). We start imitating (modeling) from 12 days after birth
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Imitation (social learning) types
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Social imitation, prompting similar behaviour (yawn together). Local or Stimulus enhancement, drawing attention to something (ordering similar food as next table). Imitation, True imitation, learning something new by duplicating it (kids smoking because parents smoke)
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Process of observational learning
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Attention (watch), Retention (remember it), Reproduction (can do it), Motivation (want to do it). Reinforcement can come much (years) later (violence later that was observed as a child)
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Clinical approach to Personality research
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Research of individual, Observations and self report. Only approach that looks at the individual, as a whole, functioning in the environment. Does not assume we know ourselves well. It’s hard to confirm the observations, prove they are right
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Correlational approach to Personality research
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Measures element of the person, not the whole, based on self reports (eg.: trait approach). Find attributes that describe people, eg., Self-report questionnaires, factor analysis. Pros, Cost effective, easy to gather data and analyze it. Cons, Correlation is not causation, Self reports are biased / not honest, How to measure the unconscious
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Experimental approach to Personality research
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Measure causal relationship by manipulating variables. Pros, Close to scientific ideal, we have control over manipulating the variables, Not reliant on self reports. Cons, Not testing the whole person, and some parts are hard to test, Participants bring their own expectations to research
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Temperament
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reactivity / impulsivity, energy level. Inborn, genetic sources, stable across lifespan. Hard to change but in childhood it’s worth trying to correct
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Inhibition to the unfamiliar
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10% across population, Shy, anxious, afraid of new things, Pattern emerges from 4 months of age, Childhood inhibition is predictor of adulthood depression
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Impulsivity, low self control, risk taking
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Sensation seeking, easily bored, Potential evolutionary advantage, Driven from the limbic system instead of the cortex, More dopamine, which drives pleasure seeking, Less serotonin, which helps inhibition. Childhood impulsivity is predictor of adulthood antisocial behaviour
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Trait assumptions
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Every person fits on the scale somewhere, Traits are normally distributed across the population, Traits don’t change across adult lifespan
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Swedish study of adoptees
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High heritability: Openness to experience. Low heritability: Agreeableness, Conscientiousness. Mixed: Extraversion, Neuroticism
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Nomothetic approach
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scores matter only compared to the average on that scale across the population, raw score is not important (Eg. Introverted - Extroverted, min 0, max 90, mode 52. What matters is how far are we from 52, NOT 45)
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Idiographic approach
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not scores but individual descriptions (more clinical approach). Observations, interviews, case studies
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Cattell's 16 traits
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From 16.000 words that could describe people, 16 clumps were identified by factor analysis. ⅓ genetics, ⅔ environment
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Eysenck organisation of traits, super traits
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Extraversion - Introversion, Neuroticism (nervousness, feelingness), Psychoticism (aggression, egocentric). Eysenck believed these traits can be traced back to arousal in ARAS Ascending Reticular Activating System
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Five factor model
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5 factors, each factor has 6 facets, 30 parts all together. OCEAN Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
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Freud Topological (topographic) model
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Conscious processes, Preconscious processes (could become conscious), Unconscious (inaccessible to the consciousness, repressed)
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Freud Drive Model
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Unconscious urges drive us, even though we repress them due to societal expectations. Respiration (breathing), Hunger, Pain-avoidance, Thirst, Sex (libido), +1 added later, Thanatos, aggressive drive
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Freud Psychosexual Model (Stages) Oral stage
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discover the world with the mouth 0-18 months. Dependence and trust, caregiver will look after us. Later problems like nail biting, smoking
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Freud Psychosexual Model (Stages) Anal stage
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conflict with compliance, toilet training and punishment, 2-3 years. Later problems like overly organized / disorganized
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Freud Psychosexual Model (Stages) Phallic stage
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becoming aware of genitals, 4-6 years. Identifying with other people and parents. Oedipus / Electra complex. Penis envy, girls want the power too.
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Freud Psychosexual Model (Stages) Latency stage
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channeling sexual energies to different activities, 7-11 years.
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Freud Psychosexual Model (Stages) Genital stage
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taking on adult responsibilities, 12+ years
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Freud’s structural model
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Id, pleasure principle, doesn’t understand no. Ego, Reality Principle, balancing the id and the superego, the conscious mind, the present, trying to satisfy the drives. Responsible for defense mechanisms and Perception, Memory, Motor coordination, Problem solving, Management of emotions, Finding compromises. Superego, self imposed standard, ideals, seeks perfection which can make us (un)happy or anxious
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Freud’s defense mechanism Repression
|
put out of consciousness
|
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Denial
|
refuse to believe the painful fact
|
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Projection
|
channeling our own desires or feelings to someone else (it’s you who’s angry not me)
|
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Reaction formation
|
something we cannot acknowledge that it’s part of us manifested as the opposite emotions (homophobic go is attracted to males)
|
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Sublimation
|
channeling sexual impulses to more acceptable activities, like sport
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Freud’s defense mechanism Rationalization
|
explaining something away
|
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Displacement
|
directing emotions away from a target to someone else (being angry with wife instead of the boss)
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Freud’s defense mechanism Regression
|
going back to an earlier stage of psychosexual development (old people talking themselves through basic tasks like children)
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Freud’s defense mechanism Passive aggression
|
finding a way to hurt someone else in a way that we cannot be blamed for (squeezing the toothpaste tube in the middle to annoy our partner)
|
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Isolation (isolation of affect)
|
losing the feeling how bad we felt about something even though we don’t forget the event itself (obsessional neurosis)
|
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Freud’s defense mechanism Undoing
|
replaying the bad event by finishing it with a nicer ending
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|
Freud’s defense mechanism Identification with the aggressor
|
Stockholm syndrome, to make the situation more manageable the victim gets closer to the aggressor
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Freud’s defense mechanism Reversal
|
turning the instinct the opposite way, turning masochist when we are sadist
|
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Optimism bias
|
we believe we are little bit better than we are. Realism (losing the bias) correlates with depression and poor health
|
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Attachment theory (John Bowlby)
|
Secure, secure trusting, seeking intimacy (50%). Ambivalent (Anxious-ambivalent), insecure, needy, dependent. Avoidant (Anxious-avoidant), distrustful, avoiding, independent. Fearful (Disorganized), afraid of being abandoned, hurt
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Psychoanalytic testing
|
Word-association test, first word that comes to your mind. Might give access to subconscious processes. Life history methods, deep interview of life events. Projective tests, Rorschach test, Thematic Apperception Test. Hypnosis, Might give access to subconscious processes. Dream interpretation, Might give access to subconscious processes. Analysis of transference, patient treating the therapist as someone the they remind them of
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Social learning theory (Bandura)
|
we can learn without operant and classical conditioning, we sometimes simply copy what other people do.
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Mirror neurons
|
imitate without thinking through, fast tracking child development (as a therapist we don’t mirror the client, let them mirror you instead)
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Script theory
|
in a situation we choose a script that comes to the mind and we simply execute it; our neural pathways are wired in this way (Script is a schema for a specific event)
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Behaviour outcome expectancy
|
the belief that a behaviour will yield an outcome
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Self-efficacy expectancy
|
we expect to be able to carry out the behaviour to get the outcome
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Schema
|
a mental shortcut, a framework for an experience based on previous experience, our unique way how we see the world (we learn how to navigate and what to get from where in a supermarket and we do it automatically without paying attention to it). Their influence is largely out of consciousness
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Abandonment schema
|
Early maladaptive schema, people close to us will leave us or won’t nurture us. We aren’t lovable enough for the other person to stay. Due to Child neglect, Moody, unpredictable parents, Parents preferred other sibling
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Defectiveness / shame schema
|
Early maladaptive schema, if people could see inside of us they would see that we are fundamentally bad. Sensitive to blame. Due to Critical parents, Sexual or emotional child abuse, Unfavorable comparison to other children
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Entitlement schema
|
Early maladaptive schema, we deserve more than others. Due to Spoiled child, no discipline, Dependent overindulgence, child is over dependent on parent
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Schema therapy
|
challenging the maladaptive schemas over a long treatment period (2-3 years)
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Person centered approach (Carl Rogers)
|
We have to enable people to reach their potentials, they are good by default. True self, the core person, untainted by the world. False self, a mask that we show to other people. Ideal self, what we believe what we should be like. Therapy makes the ideal self closer to the true self
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Existentialism
|
what we create dies with us so we need to find a meaning for our existence. We are ever changing so no lasting value or meaning is possible
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Social learning Source of aggression
|
child watch others what they do and what rewards and punishments they are getting (BoBo doll experiment, children watching how adults interact with the doll which they replicated later themselves). Social learning doesn’t explain how human aggression started, why we are attracted to aggression even though we fear it, and why is violence present in all different cultures. Is it all learned or innate, or both?
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Instinctive accounts Source of aggression
|
aggression is innate, Darwin argued it asserts power and dominance (control resources, get food when someone is in the way, etc). Freud, the death instinct, to tear down and destroy
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Lorenz, fighting instinct
|
aggression is an important survival instinct but has to be channeled appropriately. Catharsis, the purifying discharge of aggression - aggression builds up and needs to come out every once in a while (competition, sports are good). Instinctive accounts doesn’t have evidence on aggressive energy really building up. Also, catharsis doesn’t work, aggression leads to more aggression when we become used to it (after boxing matches in TVs early days aggressive crime increased the next day)
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Problems of aggression
|
Short term vs long term, get the resource short term by expelled on the long term (we live long enough to experience long term problems). Aggression breeds aggression, breeds revenge cycles, wars going on forever. Hard to break out of, who will want to look weak to end aggression. Cultures of honor, losing is shameful and it can go as far as killing own family if they wronged you
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Testosterone and aggression
|
are correlated, but can be unrelated too (high testosterone with no aggression or vice versa). Winning in competitive situation increases testosterone levels. Violent females have higher testosterone. Testosterone generally energizes people and it may or may not be channeled into aggression, especially in competitive context like sports
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Females and aggression
|
To compete for males they engage in verbal aggression, put down rival’s appearance and mating history
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Male sexual behavior
|
go for quantity over quality, spreading genes is easy, but most of males trade quantity for quality which increases reproductive success .Show risky behaviour, display big resources to attracts females to look attractive. Compete with rivals who want to display their own resource too. Aggressive toward the mate to make sure the female doesn’t stray
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Inclusive fitness theory
|
the number of offsprings a person supports or rescues. Helping a kin (genetic relative) is more likely than helping a non-kin (feed our kid first than the neighbour’s kid). Differential investment, experimental evidence, asking who would they save from a burning house, the likelihood of saving is related to genetic closeness
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Reciprocal altruism
|
helping non-kins, what goes around comes around. Helping the neighbors now might help you later. Selfish individuals are not helped later.
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Cheater mechanism
|
humans detect cheating / ripping off well, Registered at an emotional level (almost physical pain, hurt, anger, retaliation). Even kids have a good sense of fairness (who’s getting more than I do)
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Friendship
|
a trust for reciprocal altruism, a kin like relationship, no immediate reward, unlike with an exchange relationship (paying for a service).
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How to encourage cooperation
|
Think about the future, we might need our enemy, don’t burn our bridges. Give and take, and don’t be greedy. Tit-for-tat, cooperate but respond to provocation. Be known as a reciprocator - “I will repay you later”
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Hot empathy
|
the unpleasant emotional kind when we see suffering, we help to feel better
|
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|
Cold (cognitive) empathy
|
we understand the suffering without feeling it, we can help based on our value systems. The help can be more useful because we think how to help
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|
Peter Singer’s conundrum
|
expensive car just bought, stuck on the rail crossing, and a kid is struck too. Who do you save? What about other children around the world?
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Mental health
|
state of emotional and social wellbeing
|
|
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Mental health problems
|
causes distress OR impair functioning
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Mental disorder
|
causes distress AND impair functioning (in social, occupational, personal, health)
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Mental disorder study, Wesley Mission, 2010
|
lifetime diagnosable mental disorder 53%, last 12 months 26%. Any family member or close friend, 64%, adding colleagues then 77%. Would not seek help 55% for mental (prejudice, labeling is very damaging), only 7% would not seek help for physical illness
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Mental disorder study, National Survey of Mental health and well-being
|
lifetime 45.5%, 12 months 20% (bit higher figures for the USA)
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Demographic Distribution of mental problems
|
Females more susceptible, x1.25, 16-24 yrs vs 75 yrs = x4 (not age but more like era they grew up in), Education, post secondary education 19.5%, others 24.9% (not intelligence but the understanding of the situation), Homelessness 53.6% vs 20%, Jail, 41.15% vs 20%
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Days out of role with mental health disorders
|
Affective (mood) disorder, 6.2 days, Anxiety disorder, 4.5 days, Substance use, 3.5 days, Any disorder, 4 days
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Demonic possession (Historical account for mental disorder)
|
exorcism or execution was required (hatred and fear)
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Medical model (Historical account for mental disorder)
|
they are sick but we don’t know what the illness is. Sympathy and better treatment conditions. Isolation from others as it might be contagious. Used as insults. Ha Ha walls.
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Psychodynamic account for mental disorder
|
have either of these 3, neurosis, personality disorder, psychosis
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Cognitive-behavioral account for mental disorder
|
problems are learned and can be unlearned too. Life can get better, make the steps
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Systems approach account for mental disorder
|
we exist in systems. Family systems, roles, boundaries, alliances
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Evolutionary approach account for mental disorder
|
the way we behave is what have been selected. Some of the traits are helpful, anxiety helped us to avoid danger, not being happy
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Diathesis-Stress model (vulnerability-stress model)
|
We carry certain vulnerabilities (pre-dispositions), like being prone to anxiety. With additional stress (events) a disorder can develop. The same disorder (depression, anxiety) can arise from different vulnerabilities and events
|
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Depressive disorders (unipolar disorders)
|
Major depressive disorder Lifetime prevalence 21.4%, 12 months 9.7%. Persistent Depressive Disorder Lifetime 2.5%. Unspecified Depressive Disorder
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Bipolar disorder
|
Bipolar 1 Disorder - Major Depression + full manic episode. Bipolar 2 Disorder - Major Depression + hypomanic episode. 4% together. Cyclothymic disorder (frequent changes but not quite major depression or hypomanic episode). Unspecified Bipolar Disorder
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Mania & hypomania
|
elevated mood, reduced sleep, constant speaking, flight of ideas (quickly jumping from topic to topic), difficulty concentrating, working toward a specific goal, can’t sit still, pleasurable risk taking (skydiving), impairment in work and social settings. Amphetamines can trigger it. Drugs are effective treatment
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Depression symptoms
|
low mood, loss of interest (including sex), loss of appetite, weight gain/loss, sleep problems (too much or too little), inability to sit still / sitting very frozen, loss of energy, sense of worthlessness, guilt, hopelessness, poor concentration, poor memory, suicidal ideation, diurnal variation throughout the day. Comes on slowly, frequently misattributing symptoms to other problems
|
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Suicide with depression
|
Hopelessness, the feeling that it will never get better (and not depression itself) is linked to suicidal thoughts. The energy is so low that they don’t act on suicidal thoughts. When depression is lifting they might have enough energy to act on it. Women attempt more suicide but men are more successful. Higher rate with young single men and older single men. Drinking increasing the chance to act.
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Suicide with Bipolar
|
bipolars have much more energy to act in mania phase, 20% attempt suicide
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Risk assessment for suicide
|
do they have plans? Do they have the means to do it? Do they have the opportunity? Do they have social support? Asking gives the hope that someone still cares, so they generally don’t proceed
|
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|
ECT Electroconvulsive therapy
|
electric current to the brain, very effective for severe depression
|
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|
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
|
in long winters in cold areas (extreme latitudes). Exposure to sunlight (or sunroom) lifts the symptoms. Not a separate disorder, seasonal pattern of depression or bipolar
|
|
|
Genetic predisposition to depression
|
not inherited disease, just predisposition. 67% for genetic twins (1 has it, the other will too), 15% for genetically different twins
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|
Neurochemical causes for depression
|
Serotonin and norepinephrine level drop. Drugs work differently: release more, inhibit uptake, inactivate some neurotransmitters
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Beck’s Cognitive theory of depression
|
early life experiences build different beliefs. The way we see ourselves, future, world. If early experiences shapes us to see it positively it’s unlikely we will have negative views and depression and vice versa. Distorted cognitions are self fulfilling prophecies.
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|
Seligman’s Learned helplessness theory for depression
|
animals (and humans) learn that they can’t change their situation so eventually they don’t try. Antidepressant drugs help the animals to try to jump out of the electric box again. Through gradual success people can relearn that they do have control over their lives
|
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|
Abramson’s Pessimistic Explanatory/Attributional Style
|
if we find the problems to be Personal (the problem is due to me), Pervasive (this problem will always be the same, can’t change it), and Permanent (this problem is not just temporary, it will always be there), we feel stuck and it predisposes us to depression
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|
Anxiety disorders Prevalence
|
Lifetime 31.2% 12 months = 19.1%, Specific (simple) phobia 12.5% (lifetime), Social Anxiety Disorder 12.1%, Separation Anxiety Disorder 9.2%, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder 6.8%, Generalized Anxiety Disorder (anxious most of the time about different things) 5.7%, Panic Disorder 4.7%, Agoraphobia (avoid of going to different situations to avoid anxiety or panic) 1.5%
|
|
|
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
|
chronic worry about the bad things that we cannot cope with. Cycle of worry and physical tension. Treatments: Anxiety management, Teaching relaxing, mindfulness, meditation. Worry control time, collect the worries and worry about them at a specific time. Learning how to cope with recurring problems
|
|
|
Panic disorder
|
after several panic attacks (unexpected physical changes leading to intense fear) we develop a persistence fear for the following panic attacks without understanding a cause
|
|
|
Clark’s model on panic
|
cognitive misappraisal of internal sensations, eg. when we believe a physical sign (increased heart rate) would cause something horrible (heart attack), ultimately causes more physical symptoms
|
|
|
Agoraphobia
|
when making a potential connection between a place/event and a panic attack, and as a result avoid that situation. Does not need to have panic attacks any more (driving on a highway and panic disorder - avoid the highway)
|
|
|
Specific phobia
|
excessive fear of a specific object or situation (animals, natural environment like heights, blood injection…). Cause is preparedness, via natural selection we developed fear responses. We develop it through personal experience (conditioning), observation of others, or information (being told to avoid). Treatment: cognitive reappraisal & exposure and learn that it’s not dangerous
|
|
|
Social Anxiety Disorder
|
Disproportionate fear of social performance, fear or humiliation or embarrassment. Social exposure leads to anxiety or panic. Minimum 6 months. Treatment: exposure (carefully crafted and prepared), and cognitive reappraisal, learning to manage interactions effectively
|
|
|
Post traumatic stress disorder
|
After traumatic event (death or injury), response with fear and helplessness, reexperiencing the event, numbing. Destroys sense of safety, unable to make sense in life any more. Acute, chronic, or delayed (even years later). More than 1 month (otherwise Acute Stress Disorder). Treatment: help them to make sense of the events instead of blocking them out
|
|
|
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
|
Obsession, recurring thoughts / impulses / images that are intrusive and inappropriate. Compulsion, repetitive behaviour with interference with life. Treatment: exposure and response prevention (Learn that we don’t need to engage with the behaviour)
|
|
|
Reptilian brain
|
Hindbrain (Brainstem with Pons and Medulla), Inferior Colliculus (hear), Superior Colliculus (see), Thalamus (feel), Striatum (move)
|
|
|
Mammalian brain
|
Brainstem (with Pons and Medulla), Inferior colliculus, Superior Colliculus, Thalamus (relay for eyes, ears, body), Striatum, Limbic System, then Cerebral Cortex (Frontal Cortex for acting, Motor Cortex for moving, Parietal Cortex for touch, Temporal Cortex for hearing, Occipital Cortex for seeing)
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|
|
Neuraxis direction (spinal direction)
|
line through the spine (horizontal for 4 legged, vertical for us)
|
|
|
Dorsal
|
Back of the animal
|
|
|
Ventral
|
Tummy side of the animal
|
|
|
Anterior or rostral
|
Where eyes are pointing
|
|
|
Posterior or caudal
|
Where bottom of spine is pointing
|
|
|
Lateral
|
Further away from the sides
|
|
|
Medial
|
Closer to the sides
|
|
|
Horizontal brain plane
|
Brain cut eye level, horizontal
|
|
|
Sagittarius brain plane
|
Brain cut into two hemispheres
|
|
|
Coronal brain plane
|
Brain cut from top to bottom parallel to face, through both ears
|
|
|
Nervous systems (NS) components
|
Peripheral NS (Somatic, Autonomic), Central NS (Brain, Spinal cord)
|
|
|
Peripheral NS, Somatic
|
Sensory in, motor out, voluntary. Skin to dorsal roots (back of spinal column) up to brain, response comes back on ventral roots (front of spinal column) to the muscles.
|
|
|
Motor neuron disease
|
degeneration of ventral roots, to muscles
|
|
|
Spinal reflex
|
without interaction from the brain, eg. Holding onto something passively
|
|
|
6 Peripheral Nerve areas (CCTLSC)
|
Cranial Nerves, directly from the brain, not from spine. Cervical Nerves, from the neck area. Thoracic Nerves, middle part of spine. Lumbar Nerves, between ribcage and pelvis. Sacral Nerves, from the sacrum in the pelvis. Coccygeal Nerve, from conus medullaris, the tip of the spine
|
|
|
Peripheral NS, Autonomic
|
involuntary. Sympathetic, from thoracic and lumbar nerves. Ganglion: connection of nerve cells in periphery (not in brain, that’s a synapse). 4Fs, Freight (freeze), Flight, Fight, Fck. Parasympathetic, from Cranial and Sacral nerves. First Long preganglionic nerves, then Short postganglionic nerves to the target. Non emergency systems (digestion, growth, immune responses, energy storage)
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|
|
Central NS Brain & spinal cord
|
Cerebrum (cortex), Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Parietal Lobe receives the sensory information from the skin through the dorsal roots, Primary Motor Cortex in Frontal lobe sends back the muscle response through the ventral roots. Cerebellum (beneath cortex), Brain stem
|
|
|
Hormones
|
slow, not targeted, wide range of effects. Hypothalamus (below thalamus). Pituitary gland, connected to hypothalamus: Anterior pituitary (front) makes its own hormones, Posterior pituitary (back) gets the hormones from the hypothalamus and just releases them. Pineal gland, melatonin
|
|
|
Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
|
capillaries are different in the brain, they don’t leak fluid, continuous tight junctions. O2, CO2, fat soluble molecules (lipophilic), glucose (actively transported), amino-acid (actively transported) can cross the barrier, charged molecules cannot cross. Body capillaries “leak” and the fluid ends up in lymph system.
|
|
|
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
|
supply nutrients, water, salts, and glucose, circulated in big cavities (ventricle) inside the brain. Flows in the arachnoid villi (subarachnoid space) and returned to the heart
|
|
|
Meninges (DAP)
|
the membranes covering the spinal cord and brain. Dura mater, outside tough layer. Arachnoid mater, middle protective layer around spinal cord. Pia mater, inner protective layer of spinal cord
|
|
|
Homunculus for sensory and motor
|
mapping of functions on the brain, from outside to inside tounge, face, hands, body, feed, genitals
|
|
|
Sulci (sulcus for one)
|
groove on the brain
|
|
|
Gyri (gyrus)
|
hill between sulci
|
|
|
Ipsilateral (brain location)
|
same side of the brain
|
|
|
Contralateral (brain location)
|
other side of the brain
|
|
|
Proximal (brain location)
|
close structures in the brain
|
|
|
Distal (brain location)
|
further away structures in the brain
|
|
|
Tract
|
set of axons in the CNS, connecting nuclei.
|
|
|
Corpus Callosum and Anterior commissure
|
Tracts connecting the two hemispheres
|
|
|
Nerve
|
set of axons in the PNS connecting ganglions
|
|
|
Nucleus (nuclei)
|
cluster of neurons inside the CNS
|
|
|
Ganglion
|
cluster of neurons in the PNS
|
|
|
Frontal lobe
|
in front of Central Sulcus. Executive decisioning, planning of movement, working memory. Broca’s area
|
|
|
Temporal lobe
|
Hearing, advanced visual processing
|
|
|
Parietal lobe
|
Body sensations
|
|
|
Occipital lobe
|
Vision
|
|
|
Basal Ganglia (subcortical area)
|
movement, decision making, response to stimuli
|
|
|
Limbic system (subcortical area)
|
Cingulate gyrus (link cortex to limbic system), Thalamus (sensory and motor relay), Hypothalamus (body regulation), Mamillary body, Hippocampus (memory functions, reward), Amygdala (emotion, fear, arousal), Olfactory bulb (smell memory)
|
|
|
Midbrain and hindbrain
|
Midbrain is making monoamines (eg. Dopamine), essential for motivation and movement. Superior and inferior colliculi, responding to movement from vision. Pineal gland, melatonin.
|
|
|
Hindbrain
|
pons and medulla oblongata, homeostasis like heart rate, blood pressure. Relaying movement information from cortex to body
|
|
|
Cerebellum
|
little brain. Involved in coordinating movement, adds information to primary motor cortex information to refine it. Has 2 hemisphere too
|
|
|
EEG
|
Brain waves measured, Not good spatial resolution, good temporal resolution. Gamma, active thinking, Beta, alert, working, Alpha wave, relax, Theta, drowsy, meditative, Delta, sleepy, dreaming
|
|
|
Brain functional imaging
|
PET Positron Emission Tomography, measuring radioactive tracers injected . Functional MRI, measuring oxygen use. Magnetoencephalography MEG, measuring small magnetic fields by brain cells
|
|
|
Number of brain cells
|
The brain starts with 100 billion neurons, pruning and we end up with around 50%. Cerebrum 14 billion neurons, Cerebellum 70 billion neuron, Hindbrain 1 billion
|
|
|
Brainbow
|
coloring the brain cells with different colors by different neurotransmitters
|
|
|
Glial cells
|
helper cells in the brain. Astrocytes, star shaped cell. Oligodendrocytes, axon insulation
|
|
|
Ependymal cells
|
creating new neurons (neurogenesis)
|
|
|
Microglia
|
remove dead or degenerative neurons
|
|
|
Neurons 4 main parts
|
Soma (cell body), Neurite (Dendrites for receiving information and Axon for sending information out), Presynaptic Terminals
|
|
|
Axon length classification
|
Golgi Type 1, internuncial,long, eg., spine. Golgi Type 2, interneuron, short, eg., within brain
|
|
|
Neuron connection sides
|
Afferent side (to the connection through the axon), Efferent side (from the connection through dendrites)
|
|
|
Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
|
covering the cell, Phospholipid bilayer, membrane, not letting charged molecules through. Ion channels are protein molecules, letting certain molecules in-out. Intracellular, inside cell, Extracellular, outside cell
|
|
|
Resting membrane potential RMP
|
the ion concentration of the intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF) is different. Commonly -70mV. Inside more K+, Cl-, and Protein-, less Na+. Outside more Na+
|
|
|
Neuron Electrical gradient
|
+ charge outside, - inside. + ions want to flow inside through the open-at-rest, non-voltage gated K+ channel
|
|
|
Neuron Concentration gradient
|
more K inside than outside. K wants to flow outside through the K channel
|
|
|
Sodium/Potassium pump in the neuron cell membrane
|
moving 2 K+ inside and 3 Na+ to the inside. Both ions are going against concentration gradient, the pump needs energy (ATP turns into ADP)
|
|
|
Neural integration (spatial or temporal)
|
Activity from dendrites from other neurons increases + or - charges inside the soma, the overall charge is the sum of EPSP Excitatory Post Synaptic Potentials, + inflow from dendrite, depolarization, increase chance of firing and IPSP Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potentials, - inflow from dendrite, polarization, decrease chance of firing.
|
|
|
Axon Hillock
|
neck of axon, if enough + charge is present (-50mV) it fires the neuron through the axon
|
|
|
Action potential sequence
|
-70ms drops to -50ms because of incoming + ions. The Na+ channels open at -50mV, Na+ flow into the axon. Once it reaches +30mV Na+ channels close. The voltage gated K+ channel open at +30mV, K+ flows out, dropping the voltage. Refractory period when the axon is too +, cannot fire before rebalancing ions (charge can only go forward). Overshoots to -80mV (hyperpolarised). The pump starts restoring N+ and K+ balance by moving out N+
|
|
|
Myelination
|
speeds up action potential on axon, glial cells wraps the axon so ions cannot leak out, much faster travel time. Axon is not all the way covered, small gaps (Nodes of Ranvier)
|
|
|
MS Multiple Sclerosis
|
the myelin is damaged on the axons
|
|
|
Neurotransmitter release
|
Charge releases neurotransmitter from vesicle (wrapper) from the cell into synapse then which binds to the receptor of postsynaptic dendrite. Receptor opens when bound to it, either letting + or - ion in. Neurotransmitter gets unbound and gets back to presynaptic terminal (reuptake)
|
|
|
Dopamine
|
reduced in Parkinson’s disease, motor impairment
|
|
|
Serotonin
|
reduced in depression, low mood
|
|
|
Acetylcholine
|
reduced in Alzheimer’s disease, memory loss
|
|
|
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
|
inhibitor, increased with alcohol
|
