Psychology Exam Study Guide

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both grow and decline.

Involve changes in an individual's biological nature.

Genes inherited from parents' the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause; and changes throughout life in the brain, height and weight, and motor skills.

Involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language. Observing a colorful mobile as it swings above a crib, construction a sentence about the future, imagining onself as a movie star, memorizing a new telephone number.

Involve changes in an individuals' relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality. An infant's smile in response to her mother's touch, a girls' development of assertiveness, an adolescents joy at the senior prom etc.

differences between individuals that stem not necessarily from their ages but form the historical and social time period in which they were born an developed.

A person's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes.

Refers to the individual's environmental and social experiences.

The individuals' genetic heritage

A person's observable characteristics. Shows the contribution of both nature (genetic heritage) and nurture (environment).

PKU results in an inability to metabolize the amnio acid phenylalanine. People thought it led to a specific phenotype. Actually it was cause of people's diets.

hat a person's observable and measurable characteristics might not reflect his or her genetic heritage very precisely because of experience.

Scientists believe individuals shape their own lives by taking ingredients from nature and nature.

Although experiences as a baby can change you a lot as a person, both early and late experiences are very influential as well.

a person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Despite undergoing hardship time and time again, resilient children grow up to be capable adults. They have some advantages: a strong intellectual functioning or a close, supportive relationship with a parent or other adtul.

Any agent that causes a birth defect. This include chemical substances like alcohol and cigarettes as well as illnesses such as STDs and measles. The effects of chemical teratogens depend on the timing of exposure

Problems that appear because the mother drank alcohol. These include small head, defects in the limbs and heart, below-average intelligence and Facial cranial abornamilia. They also increase the likelihood of depression, aggression and substance abuse in the child. Heavy and moderate drinking can lead to this.

The more cigarettes you smoke, the smaller the baby will be.

Things like Gonorrhea and Syphilis and HIV can effect the baby. They enhance the risk of stillbirth as well as eye infections and blindness.

An infant who is born prior to 37 weeks after conception.

Minor physical abnoramlities.

Produces def and blind kids.

They will die early

Below 2,500 Grams / 5 Pounds

Below 1,500 Grams / 3 pounds

Below 1,000 Grams/ 2 pounds

Half will die. Those who live will have problems such as retardation, cerebral palsy, heart disease and lung disease.

This

In stroking an infant's cheek. HEad turns in the direction of the touch, and the infant opens his or her mouth for feeding.

The infant grasps the item and can hold on very well.

If the inner sole is stroke, the infant curls his or her toes.

The infant throws his or her head back when hearing a loud noise.

When touching the infants back, the infant curves toward the side that it is stroked.

0-2 Years. Last Stage of Perception and Motor Development.

2-6 years Children begin to represent their world with words, images, and drawings.

6-12 Years

10+ Years. Last stage of intelligence.

20s-40s

40-65

65+

A research technique that involves giving an infant choice of what object to look at. If they prefer one thing over another, then they can tell the two images apart.

Babies get a red ball and start sucking, but when they get bored, breathing goes down and sucking stops. When presented with a green ball, the cycle continues.

They prefer moderately complex and they prefer attractive faces. Before 3 months, babies watch mouths and look at around the face rather than inside it. After 3 months, babies prefer real faces to scrambled faces and thier mother's face to a stranger's/.

Their ability to detect sound is lost and then gained again at 6 months. Transtion of where the brian is processing info. They begin to prefer human voices, familiar speech.

They aren't afraid of the cliff until 6 months. They start to crawl, so they need that safety feature because they dint' have their moms.

In quiet room: No stimulation so it falls asleep
Loud, overly complex room: they over-stimulate, shut down and fall asleep.

How thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature.

An individuals' incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. Faced with a new experience, the person applies old ways of doing things.

An individuals' adjustment of his or her schemas to new information. Rather than using one's old ways of doing things, a new experience promotes new ways of dealing with experience.

Happens during Infancy (0 - 2 Years). In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with motor (physical) actions--hence the term sensorimotor

The crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard or touched. Occurs during Infancy. 6 month old has no object permanance. 9 year old does.

Don't remember anything before 3 year olds because they don't have a sense of self.

Expressive vocals. Understand some 300 words. Say 30 or 40 of them. Function of growing up. Children use words in a very idiosyncratic way. Average words. Single- Word sentences. By the 6th year , 1,000 words from language. Some words are hard to say "Yellow" and "Lellow". Problems with plurals: My foot-s
Problems with past tense: I go-ed.
"Wh" questions: what, why.

A man looks confused
4 Year Old: Keeps Talking
6 Year Old: Speaks Louder
8 Year Old: Asks "What don't you understand."

Occurs during Pre-school years (2-7 years). Thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought. Kids hold Static representations. They are also Egocentric and unable to see from the perspective of others.

The Beikers are different sizes but filled with the same water. 4 year old child says that the amount of liquid in the tall beaker is big than the amount of the small. The 8 year old says they are the same.

Happens around Early child hood (7 to 11 years of age. During which the individual uses operations nd replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations. One skill develops in reasoning is the ability to classify things into different sets or subset and to consider their interrelations. Concrete operational thought.

Happens around the early adolescence and continues through adult years (11 to 15). It features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions and using logic to come up with hypothesis about the future. Purely abstract possibilities.

Many adolescence and young adults don't reason as logically as Piaget proposed. He also likely underestimated the cognitive capacities of every young children. Renée Baillargeon debunked object permanence.

Focuses on how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it. Focuses on specific cognitive processes.

That mental workspace that is used for problem solving, linked to many aspects of children's development. Children who have better working memory are more advanced in reading comprehension, math skills, and problem solving than their counterparts with less effective working memory.

Refers to higher-order, complex cognitive promanaging one's cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving.

You can look at twins and fraternal twins and see that thier is a high evidence that genes effect intelligence.
Genes provide potential. Environmental does the rest.
Infant that sleeps with a white blanket over its head will become stupid.

They hold certain biases with race, class, lower. IQ don't predict grades. Timed test sometimes effect performance. Valid if measuring intelligence but we can't define intelligence.

Sensory Memory -> Working Memory -> Long-Term Memory.

Adolescence

End of Infancy

An individual's behavior style and characteristic way of responding.

The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver. They instanctivly form an attachment.

The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.
When a baby cries, if the mother responds:
Attention = Secure
Ignore = Anxious
Consistent = Secure
Inconsistent = Anxious
Contigent = Secure
Incontigent = Anxious

Feeding
Fixed Schedule: Anxious
When they want food: Secure

They leave a child alone with a stranger than come back

Secure baby (55%) is upset when the mother leaves, but calms down and appears happy to see her whne she returns. The securely attached infant moves away freely from the mother but also keeps tabs on her.

Anxious baby (30%): Responds with intense distress, then rages at the mother when she comes back.

Ambivalent/Disorganized Baby (15%) When a stranger comes, the infant goes to the stranger and not mom.

Trust versus mistrust: (Up to 18 months) Trust is built and toddlers begin to see themselves as independent agents in the world.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt: (18 months to 3 years) They develop positive sense of autonomy or negative feelings of shame and doubt. They can either do things themselves or can't.

Initiative versus guilt: (3 to 5 years) Preschoolers experience what it is like to forget their own interests and friendships and to take on responsibilities. They develop initiative or guilt and anxiousness.

Industry versus inferiority: (6 years to puberty): They can achieve industry by mastering knowledge and intellectual skills or feel inferior. Industry is taking on acedemia.

A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions.

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior

A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior

1) Take level of development into account 2)Choose different punishments: Look unhappy. Say no. Take away toys and privilege. Time outs. 3) Match punishment to misdeed4) Consisten public/private 5) Punish misdeed not child.6) Alternative behavior. (Give them choices) 7) Choose battles. 8) Provide supervision. (Teens want to be kind of restricted. If not, then dangerous.

The individuals' moral reasoning is based primarily on the consequences of behavior

The individual abides by standards learned form parents or society's laws.

The individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code.

Behavior that is intended to benefit other people

A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence. Ends when someone becomes entirely independent from their parents. Begins the re-distribution of fat. Makes men stronger. Widening of hips for women.

The class of sex horomones that predominate in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females.

The class of sex hormones that predominate in females, produced mainly by the ovaries.

Boys who mature earlier than their peers tend to show more positive socioemotional outcomes, being popular and high self-esteem. More successful and less likely to drink alcohol, smoke cigarettes or become delinquents.
Girls who are early bloomers tend to be less outgoing, less popular, more likely to smoke, use drugs, become sexually active, and engage less in academic pursuits.

Teenager's are developing the amygdala, which involves emotion, and later the development of the prefrontal cortex, which is concerned with reasoning and decision making. These changes in the brain explain why teenager's feel very strong emotions but cannot control them. they lack cognitive skills to control their impulses effectively. This makes them increase risk taking and other problems in adolescence.

involves the belief that others are preoccupied with the adolescent as he or she is and that the individual is both unique and invincible.

Adolescents are playing different roles and do not know who they are. If they do not explore themselves, they will end up confused. This is expressed in one or two ways: The individual isolates himself from families and peers or loses himself in the crowd.

When you have differences between who you want to be and who you are, you are more likely to abuse.

Person's investigating various options for a career and for personal values.

Involves making a decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity.

Because they are trying to find out who they are and experiment at a time when they are bad at decision making.

Identity exploration, especially in love and work: Emerging adulthood is the time of significant changes in identity for many individuals.

Instability: Residential changes peak during emerging adulthood, a time during which there laso is often instability in love, work, and education.

Self-Focus: emerging adults have a great deal of autonomy in running their own lives

Feeling "In between": Many emerging adults consider themselves neither adolescents nor full fledged adults.

Age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their life: They feel optimistic about their future to guide their lives.

Theory that cells can divide a maximum of about 100 times and that our cells become less capale of dividing as we age.

People age because unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals are produced inside their cells.

Argues that aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease.

More realistic pragmatic thinking.

The theory states that older adulsts tend to be selective in their social interactions in ordet to maximize postive, meaningful experiennces. Adults need meaning.

A myth because those who have this crisis usually had personality issues earlier.

Studies have shown that the times of stress in the household is when children or adolescents are living in it.

Happens to everyone not just old people.

Some eople go through all of these but each individual doesn't go through exactly all these stages in that specific order.

Diet and estrogen. Yes

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping.

Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events.

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior.

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associtated with an innately meaninful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicic similar response.

A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning

An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

The learned response to the conditioned stimilus that occurs after conditioned stiumulus- unconditioned stimulus pairing.

The initial learning of the connection between unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.

The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the unconditioned response.

The process of learning to respond to certain stimului and not others.

The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time of delay, without further conditioning.

The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context.

A classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response

A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence .

Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes ar weakened.

Rewarding successive approximating of a desired behavior.

The process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) followed by a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.

An organism's learning that it can altogether avoid negative stimulus by making a particular response.

An organism's learning through experince with negative stimuli that it hasz no control over negative outcomes

A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable

A reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer.

Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation

Responding appropriately to reinforced stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.

Decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced

Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.

A form of problem solving in which the organism develops sudden insight into or understanding of a problems' solution.

Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.

The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.